THE  WORLDS  EPOCH/*\AKER: 
Edited  by  Qummr  Skeatoe 


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P.  De  Lacy  Johnstone,  aya 


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THE  WORLD'S   EPOCH-MAKERS 


EDITED    BY 

OLIPHANT    SMEATON 


Muhammad  and 

His  Power 

By  P.  De  Lacy  Johnstone,  M.A.(Oxon.),  M.R.A.S. 


Previous  Volumes  in  this  Series:— 

CRANMER  AND  THE  ENGLISH    REFORMATION. 

By  A.  D.  INNES,  M.A. 

WESLEY 

AND   METHODISM. 

By  F.  J.  Snell,  M.A. 

LUTHER 

AND   THE   GERMAN    REFORMATION. 

By  Prof.  T.  M.  Lindsay,  D.D. 

BUDDHA 

AND    BUDDHISM. 

By  Arthur  Lillie,  M.A. 

WILLIAM 

HERSCHEL  AND   HIS   WORK. 

By  James  Sime,  M.A.,   F.R.S.E. 

FRANCIS 

AND   DOMINIC. 

By  Prof.  J.   Herkless,  D.D. 

SAVONAROLA. 

By  Rev.  G.   M 'Hardy,  D.D. 

ANSELM 

AND   HIS   WORK. 

By  Rev.  A.  C.  Welch,  M.A.,  B.D. 

ORIGEN 

AND  GREEK   PATRISTIC   THEOLOGY. 

By  Rev.  William  FairwExVTHEr,  M.A. 

For  Complete  List  see  End. 

THE    WORLD'S    EPOCH-MAKERS 


11922      ■■ 

Muhammad  ^Si^^^^^ 

His   Power 


By 
/ 

P.  De  Lacy  Johnstone,  M.A.(Oxon.),  M.R.A.S. 

(Of  H.M.B.C.S.,  retired) 


"The  faith  which  he  preached  is  compounded  of  an 
eternal  truth  and  a  necessary  fiction  :  That  there  is  only 
one  God,  and  that  Mahomet  is  the  Prophet  of  God." 

Gibbo}2, 


New  York.  Charles  Scribner's  Sons 

1901 


To 
My  Wife 


PREFACE 


So  much  has  been  written,  and  so  much  learning  and 
study  devoted  to  the  history  of  Muhammad  and  the 
religious  and  political  power  which  he  founded,  and 
which  now,  after  thirteen  centuries,  seems — as  a  religion 
— not  less  firmly  established  than  ever  it  was,  that 
one  who  approaches  the  subject  to-day  cannot  hope 
to  do  much  more  than  sift  and  select  from  the  labours 
of  those  who  have  gone  before  him.  The  struggle  of 
Christianity  with  the  forces  of  Islam  began  within 
five  years  of  the  Flight  from  Mecca,  but  the  study  of 
its  documents  and  the  history  of  its  rise  and  progress 
(that  is,  of  course,  by  those  who  are  outside  its  pale) 
has  been  the  growth  of  the  last  century  and  a  half. 
In  our  own  country  the  strength  and,  scarcely  less,  the 
weaknesses  of  the  founder  and  of  the  system  have 
roused  the  admiration  of  Gibbon  and  Carlyle,  have 
been  the  object  of  profound  study  by  such  scholars  and 
administrators  as  Edward  Lane  and  Sir  William  Muir, 
and  have  been  the  goal  of  travellers  like  Richard 
Burton  and  GifFord  Palgrave,  Burkhardt  and  Carsten 
Niebuhr.  In  this,  as  in  most  other  domains  of  know- 
ledge, German  scholars  have  done  great  work :  the 
names  of  Sprenger  and  Weil,  Noldeke  and  Kremer,  are 
specially   to   be  honoured;    while  the  great  work  of 


viii  PREFACE 

Caussin  de  Perceval,  and  the  masterly  though  short 
book  of  St.  Hilaire,  are  witness  to  the  debt  which  we 
owe  in  these  studies  to  France  also.  To  one  book 
I  am  myself  under  particular  obligation — Hughes's 
Dictionary  of  Islam,  a  work  of  great  grasp  and  deep 
learning,  not  only  embodying  the  substance  of  the  most 
important  work  of  his  predecessors,  but  also  instinct 
with  that  familiarity  with  his  theme  which  can  only 
be  got  by  a  life  spent  among  Muhammadans,  together 
with  wide  study  of  their  literature  and  modes  of 
thought.  Having  thus  made  a  general  acknowledgment 
of  the  sources  of  the  present  work,  it  will  not  be 
necessary  to  burden  my  pages  with  particular  refer- 
ences, and  the  reader  will  readily  excuse  me  from 
making  them.  One  part  of  the  field  of  inquiry  still  lies 
imperfectly  worked,  the  relation  of  Islam  to  Judaism, 
which  was  made  a  reproach  to  Muhammad  by  his 
unbelieving  countrymen :  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  some 
day  we  shall  have  exhaustive  treatment  of  the  subject, 
on  the  lines  already  drawn  by  those  brilliant  Jewish 
scholars,  Deutsch  and  Geiger.  The  earlier  chapters  of 
the  book  give  a  sketch  of  the  land,  the  people,  and  the 
conditions  in  which  the  Prophet  arose,  for  he  was  an 
Arab  of  the  Arabs ;  in  the  latest  is  shown  how  his 
successors  prosecuted  his  work,  and  some  account  is 
given  of  that  wonderful  Quran  which  is  the  Charter 
of  Islam. 

The  following  short  list  of  books,  easily  accessible 
in  our  own  language,  will  give  the  student  sound 
knowledge  of  my  whole  subject,  and  will  guide  him  to 
the  best  original  authorities,  if  he  desire  to  consult 
them  : — 

Sir  W.  Muir's  Life  of  Mahomet  and  Early  Caliphate 


PREFACE  ix 

(Smith  &  Elder);  Hughes,  Dictionary  of  Islam 
(Allen);  Sell's  Faith  of  Islam  (Triibner);  Lane's 
Selections  from  the  Kuran  (Triibner)  and  Modern 
Egyptians  (Murray);  Burton's  Pilgrimage  to  Al- 
Medina  and  Meccah  (Tylston  &  Edwards),  and 
W.  G.  Palgrave's  Central  and  Eastern  Arabia  (Mac- 
millan);  Koelle's  Muhammad  and  MuhammadanisTii 
(Longmans) ;  Palmer's  Quran  (Clarendon  Press)  and 
Sale's  Koran,  the  latter  of  which  is  still  in  many 
respects  unsurpassed.  The  Encyclopcedia  Britannica 
articles  Arabia  (Palgrave),  and  Muhammad,  etc. 
(Noldeke),  are  also  very  valuable. 

The  portrait  of  Muhammad,  gathered  from  the 
Traditions  (p.  148),  is  taken  almost  exactly  from 
Deutsch's  Essay  on  Islam:  Mr.  Poole  had  already 
used  it  before  me. 

The  passages  from  the  Quran  are  taken,  by  permis- 
sion of  the  Delegates  of  the  Clarendon  Press,  from  Pro- 
fessor Palmer's  version.  I  am  also  greatly  indebted 
to  Sir  C.  J.  Lyall  for  leave  to  make  extracts  from  his 
Ancient  Arabian  Poetry  (pp.  20-24). 


ON  THE  TRANSLITERATION  OF 
ARABIC  WORDS 


There  exists  unhappily  great  diversity  among  scholars 
in  the  transcribing  of  Arabic  words  in  Roman  charac- 
ters, and  the  difficulties  are  made  greater  by  differences 
of  pronunciation  (both  of  vowels  and  consonants)  in 
the  various  countries  where  Arabic  is  spoken.  I 
therefore  ask  the  indulgence  of  readers  for  faults  and 
inconsistencies  of  spelling :  scholars  will  not  be  severe, 
and  I  might  shelter  myself  behind  the  authority  and 
example  of  one  of  our  greatest  Arabists,  Sir  R. 
Burton,  who  pronounced  all  special  efforts  after  scien- 
tific accuracy  to  be  "superfluous  for  the  reader  who 
knows  Arabic,  and  no  help  to  the  reader  who  does 
not."  My  own  rough  scheme  is  meant  only  as  a  guide 
to  correct  pronunciation. 

That  vowels  are  to  be  pronounced  as  in  Italian  is 
the  general  rule,  consonants  as  in  English ;  long  vowels 
are  marked  with  a  bar,  but  where  the  pronunciation 
has  once  been  correctly  indicated,  it  may  be  found  that 
sometimes  such  marks  have  been  omitted  when  a  name 
recurs. 


xii   TRANSLITERATION  OF  ARABIC  WORDS 

a — the  so-called  obscure  vowel — as  u  in  iniid 

a  „    a    „    father 

i  „    i    V    ^it 

1  „    ee  „    meet 

u  „    00  „    foot 

u  „    00  „    food 

e_  „    ay  „    ipay 

ai  „    ai  „    aisle 

au  „    oiv  „    owl 

th  hard  as  in  thought 

dh  soft  as  in  fai/ier 

Kh  Greek  x  as  in  Sc.  loch 

q  represents  guttural  K 

gli  is  a  strong  guttural  (ghain),  not  very  different  from 

the  French  r. 

Ain,  the  peculiar  Semitic  guttural,  I  have  generally 
left  unrepresented ;  but  sometimes,  as  in  the  common 
name  Saad,  and  in  Kaaha,  it  is  represented  by  the 
second  vowel.  Generally,  where  two  vowels  (not 
being  one  of  the  diphthongs  ai,  aw)  come  together, 
both  are  to  be  pronounced. 

After  much  hesitation  I  have  uniformly  written  the 
Prophet's  name  Muhammad,  though  most  English 
readers  will  probably  always  follow  the  traditional 
pronunciation  Mahomet.  In  the  case  of  the  Khalifa 
I  have  used  the  familiar  O'^nar  instead  of  the  correct 
U'tnr,  the  latter  being  hard  to  pronounce  and  the 
former  particularly  familiar  as  the  name  also  of  the 
Persian  poet  Omar  Khayyam.  Khalifa  replaces  the 
old  title  Caliph,  and  is  only  too  well  known  to 
English  readers  from  recent  events  in  the  Soudan. 
Mecca  and  Medina  are  written  in  the  traditional  way. 

In  proper  names  I  have  written  al  (the  definite 
article),  not  changing  I  before  dentals,  etc.,  as  is  done 
in  pronunciation. 


SOME  LEADING  DATES  IN  THE 
HISTORY 


A.D. 

570.  Attack    by    Abraha    on    Mecca  repulsed.      "Year   of   tlie 

Elephant."    Muhammad  born. 
595.  Marriage  to  Kliadija. 

611.  Muhammad  declares  himself  the  Apostle  of  God 
615-616.  First  and  Second  Migration  of  Converts  to  Abyssinia. 
617.  Muslims  placed  under  a  ban  at  Mecca. 

620.  Death  of  Khadija  and  of  Abu  Talib. 

621.  First  Pledge  of  Aqaba. 

622.  The  Hijra.     Flight  of  Muhammad  to  Medina. 
624.  Battle  of  Badr. 

630.  Capture  of  Mecca. 
632.  Death  of  Muhammad. 

.  *^  1  Abu  Bakr  Khalifa.     Subjugation  of  Arabia.     First  foreign 
R'^4.  f     conquests. 
634.  Omar  Khalifa. 
634.  First  Eecension  of  the  Quran. 

634.  Victory  of  Yarmuk. 

635.  Victory  at  Qadisiya. 
637.  Conquest  of  Jerusalem. 

641.  Conquest  of  Egypt. 

642.  Conquest  of  Persia. 

644.  Murder  of  Omar.     Election  of  Uthman. 

651.  Eevision  of  the  Quran  :  text  finally  settled. 

656.  Murder  of  Uthman  :  election  of  Ali.    Battle  of  the  "  Camel." 


xiv     LEADING  DATES   IN  THE   HISTORY 

A.B. 

657.  Battle  of  SifFin,  against  Muawiya. 

658.  All  deposed  by  the  Umpires. 

661.  Murder  of  Ali.     Hasan  abdicates  :  Muawiya  sole  Khalifa. 
680.  Husain  defeated  and  slain  at  Karbala. 


CONTENTS 


PAGE 

Preface vii 

CHAPTER    I 

The  Awakening  of  Arabia — Early  Commerce— Mecca  and  Muham- 
mad—His Mission  and  the  Extension  of  his  Power— Physical 
Features  and  Ethnology— The  Hijaz— Bedouins       ...       1 


CHAPTER    II 

The  Arabs  before  Islam— Social  Condition — Religious  Beliefs- 
Arab  Poetry  and  Arab  Life— Tribal  Ties— Hatim  Tai— Select 
Specimens  of  pre- Islamic  Poetry 13 


CHAPTER    III 

Arabs  of  the  Town— Mecca's  Religious  Position— Arab  Races  and 
Languages — Dynasties — Yaman,  Abyssinia,  etc.— Christian  In- 
fluences :  Hira  and  Ghassan — Medina — Jewish  Influences — 
Pilgrimage  and  Months  of  Truce— Mecca  :  Quraish  and  Qusai 
— Tribes  of  Central  Arabia— Medina 26 


CHAPTER   IV 

Qusai  to  Muhammad— Abd  al  Muttalib— Redemption  of  Abdallah 
— Strength  of  Idolatry  in  Mecca—"  Muslims  before  Islam  " — 
Zaid  the  Sceptic— Birth  of  Muhammad,  a  Posthumous  Child 
— Adoption  by  Abd  al  JMuttalib— His  Fosterage  and  Early 
Childhood— Death  of  his  Mother— Legends  of  his  Infancy — 
His  Youth— Marriage  to  Khadija 37 

h 


xvi  CONTENTS 


CHAPTER   V 

PAGE 

Muhammad's  Public  and  Private  Life — His  Character— Early  Striv- 
ings after  Truth  —  First  Revelations  —  The  "Cessation  of 
Visions  " — Muhammad's  Early  Preaching — Beginnings  of  Suc- 
cess— Ali,  Zaid,  Abu  Bakr  converted — Blind  Man — Temptation 
by  Quraish  rejected 54 


CHAPTER    VI 

The  New  Sect  Persecuted — Migration  to  Abyssinia — The  Debate — 
Muhammad's  Lapse  and  Recovery — The  Interdict  by  Quraish 
— Its  Removal — Fresh  Converts — Death  of  Ivhadija  and  of  Abu 
Talib — Marriage  with  Sauda  and  with  Ayesha — Help  from 
Medina — The  First  and  Second  Pledges  of  Aqaba — The  Flight 
— The  "Night  Journey  "  to  Jerusalem  and  Heaven  ! 


CHAPTER    VII 

Muhammad  reaches  Medina — Religious  and  Political  Institutions 
—  "Refugees"  and  "Helpers":  Bond  of  Brotherhood — The 
Jews — Attacks  on  Meccan  Commerce — Battle  of  Badr  :  Its 
Critical  Importance  —  Treatment  of  the  Captives  —  Joy  in 
Medina— Reprisals  against  Foes  in  Medina — Exile  of  Jews — 
Marriage  of  Fatirna  to  Ali — Defeat  of  Muhammad  at  Uhud — 
The  Prophet  wounded — Khalid — Hamza  slain — The  Funeral 
Hymn — Assassinations — Exile  of  more  Jews     .         .         .         .88 


CHAPTER   VIII 

Muhammad's  Fair  at  Badr— Scandalous  Marriage  with  Zainab — 
Justified  l)y  "Revelation" — Ordinances  for  Women — The 
Prophet's  Exemptions — The  Scandal  raised  against  Ayesha, 
who  is  cleared  by  a  Revelation — Punishment  of  the  Slanderers 
— Laws  for  the  Prophet's  Wives — Medina  besieged  by  the 
Quraish — The  Ditch — Siege  raised — Massacre  of  the  Quraiza 
Jewish  Tribe — Minor  Expeditions — Assassinations  .         .         .105 


CHAPTER   IX 

A  Pilgrimage  to  Mecca  attempted — Failure— Treaty  with  Quraish 
— Muhammad  summons  Rome,  Persia,  etc.  to  embrace  Islam 
— Return  of  Exiles  from  Abyssinia — Jews  of  Khaibar  conquered 
— Safia  married — Attempt  to  poison  Muhammad — Pilgrimage 


CONTENTS  xvii 


PAGE 

performed — Defeat  at  Muta,  Zaid  slain — Conquest  of  Mecca : 
Muhammad's  clemency  —  Destruction  of  Idols  —  Victory  of 
Hunain — Siege  of  Ta,if — The  Bani  Saad — Birth  and  Death  of 
Ibrahim — Scandal  with  Mary  the  Co j)t 119 


CHAPTER   X 

Muhammad  now  supreme  in  Arabia— Administrative  Steps — Tribute 
and  Tax-Gatherers — Treaty  with  Christian  Tribes — The  "Year 
of  Deputations" — Idolaters  forbidden  to  enter  Mecca  — 
Ordinance  of  Holy  War — The  Farewell  Pilgrimage — Last  Ill- 
ness and  Death  of  Muhammad         137 


CHAPTER   XI 

General  Review  of  Muhammad  and  his  System — Personal  Appear- 
ance, Habits,  and  Character — His  Teaching — The  Position  he 
claimed  for  himself — The  Quran — The  Future  :  Paradise  and 
Hell — Religious  and  Social  Laws — Moral  Duties— Islam  and 
Christianity 148 


CHAPTER   XII 

Sketch  of  the  Early  Conquests  of  Islam — Abu  Bakr  first  Khalifa 
— Arabia  revolts — False  Prophets  arise — Rebellion  crushed — 
Siege  of  Medina — Reduction  of  Yaman,  Hadramaut,  etc. — 
Operations  of  Khalid — Musailima  "the  Liar"  defeated  and 
slain  at  Yamama — First  Collection  of  the  Quran  by  Zaid — 
First  Foreign  Conquests — Persia — Hira — Reverses — Death  of 
Abu  Bakr — Succession  of  Omar — Khalid  deposed — Great  defeat 
of  the  Arabs  by  Bahman — Victory  of  Muthanna — Conquest  of 
Persia — Qadisiya — Siege  and  Capture  of  Madain — Jalaula — 
Founding  of  Kufa  and  Basra — Conquest  of  Syria :  Damascus, 
Jerusalem — Conquest  of  Egypt  by  Amru — Reopening  of  Canal 
to  Red  Sea — Domestic  Administration — "Year  of  Ashes" — 
Code  and  Pension-List — Hijra  Era — Degradation  of  Morals — 
Assassination  of  Omar  :  his  Character      .         .         .         .         .160 


CHAPTER   XIII 

Election  of  Uthman— Discontent  of  Ali — The  Khalifa's  Weakness 
and  Unpopularity — His  Charncter  and  his  Difficulties — Seeds 
of  Schism — Turbulence  of  Kufa  and  Basra — Successes  in  Egypt 
—  Changes  of  Governors  —  Nepotism  —  Discontent  and  Con- 


xviii  CONTENTS 


spiracy — Open  Rebellion — Utliman  besieged  in  his  own  palace 
and  assassinated — Ali  elected — Revolt  of  Zubair  and  Talha — 
Ayesha— Battle  of  the  "  Camel"— Defiance  by  Muawiya — KCifa 
chosen  as  Capital — March  against  Muawiya— Battle  of  Siflm — 
Truce  and  Arbitration— The  Award— Fresh  War— Peace  with 
]\Iuawiya— Loss  of  Egypt— The  Kharijites— Murder  of  Ali— 
Election  and  Abdication  of  Hasan — Muawiya  sole  Khalifa — 
Yazid  —  Hasan  — March  to  Kufa  —  Karbala— "Martyrs"  of 
Christianity  and  Islam 179 


CHAPTER    XIV 

The  Quran— Its  Composition,  Literary  Character,  and  Influence — 
Fixes  the  Arabic  Tongue — Not  collected  by  Muhammad — The 
Fatiha — The  Doctrine  of  Allah,  with  Extracts — Man's  relation 
to  God  :  his  Moral  and  Religious  Duties  ;  Future  Life,  and  Re- 
Avards  and  Punishments — The  Higher  Law  of  Christ — Creation 
and  Providence— The  Resurrection— Paradise  and  Hell — Illus- 
trative Extracts — Muhammad's  Debt  to  Judaism — His  Inferi- 
ority— Women  in  Islam — Slavery 194 


CHAPTER   XV 

Shias  and  Sunnis,  the  great  Schism— Miracle  Play  of  Hasan  and 
Husain — Sufis — Darwesh  Orders— Wahhabis — Islam  in  Politics 
— Muslims  in  China — Conclusion 216 


APPENDICES 


A.  Women  and  the  Future  Life 231 

B.  Note  on  the  Muhammadan  Era 232 

C.  Original  Despatch  from  Muhammad 233 

Index 235 


MUHAMMAD  AND  HIS  POWER 


CHAPTEE   I 

Tlie  Awakening  of  Arabia — Early  Commerce — Mecca  and 
Muliammad — His  Mission  and  the  Extension  of  his  Power 
— Physical  Features  and  Ethnology — The  Hijaz — Bedouins. 

Aeabia,  which  had  slept  for  ages,  isolated  by  differ- 
ence of  cHmate  and  of  race,  was  at  last  to  awake ;  her 
warring  tribes  were  to  be  knit  together  in  one  faith, 
and  in  obedience  to  one  master-mind ;  the  mists  of  her 
hoary  idolatries  were  to  roll  away  before  the  sun  of  a 
new  doctrine,  and  the  veil  behind  which  the  constituents 
of  the  new  nation  had  been  for  centuries  hid  from  the 
peoples  around,  was  once  and  for  all  to  be  rent  asunder. 
The  sixth  century  after  Christ  was  nearing  its  close ; 
Christianity  itself  was,  alas !  torn  by  bitter  strife  and 
faction ;  the  mighty  empire  of  Rome,  whose  seat  had 
been  three  centuries  before  changed  from  the  banks  of 
Tiber  to  the  shores  of  the  Bosphorus,  was  sinking  into 
decrepitude;  the  rival  empire  of  Persia  also  had  lost 
the  vigour  of  earlier  times  ;  the  world  was  ripe  for  the 
appearance  of  a  fresh  race ;  and  in  the  fulness  of  time 
the  Prophet  of  Arabia  was  born  in  Mecca,  which  had 


2  MUHAMMAD  AND   HIS  POWER 

long  been,  as  history  witnesses,  a  centre  of  religion  and 
of  commerce,  from  which  radiated  ideas  and  traffic  to 
every  corner  of  the  great  peninsula,  and  to  all  the  lands 
whither  her  merchants  travelled.     It  was  but  a  small 
town,  nestling   in  a  plain  amid  arid,  volcanic  rocks, 
some  50  miles  from  the  shores  of  the  Red  Sea,  from 
which  the  ground  rises  gradually  toward  the  great  table- 
land of  inner  Arabia ;  but  to  it,  as  to  a  sanctuary  of 
great  holiness,  to  worship  at  the  rude  temple  which 
lesfend  traced  back  to  Abraham  and  Ishmael  as  its 
founders,  gathered,  year  by  year  in  their  thousands,  the 
merchants  and  poets,  travellers  and  traders,  of  every 
tribe  and  nation  of  Arabia.     As  the  rival  peoples  of 
Greece  mingled  on  the  plains  of  Olympus  or  Corinth, 
or  the  merchants  of  many  lands  meet  to-day  at  the 
great  fair  of  Nijni-Novgorod,  or  as  pilgrims  flock  to 
Rome  from  all  corners  of  the  habitable  earth, — so  in 
pagan  times,  in  the  days  of  the  "  Ignorance,"  did  the 
wandering  desert  tribes  gather  for  pleasure,  for  proht, 
and  for  worship,  to  the  plains  around  Mecca.     They 
worshipped   the   three   hundred  and   sixty  idols  tho.t 
stood  round  the  Kaaba ;  they  made  the  mystic  seven- 
fold circuit  of  the  shrine,  and  they  drank  of  the  hol}^ 
well   Zemzem;   and,  above   all,  they  devoutly  kissed 
the  wondrous  Black  Stone,  that  holiest  part  of  the  Holy 
Temple's  walls.     These  bonds  of  union,  purified  from 
idolatrous  taint,  were  retained  and  strengthened  in  the 
new  religion ;  and  the  most  notable  duty  of  Islam,  the 
annual  pilgrimage  to  Mecca,  a  sacred  obligation  laid  on 
every  follower  of  the  Prophet,  to  be  discharged  once  at 
least  in  his  lifetime,  if  it  be  in  any  wise  possible,  has 
its   roots   deep   in   the   immemorial   usages   of   pagan 
Arabia. 


GREATNESS  OF  MUHAMMAD  3 

In  the  year  570  of  the  Christian  era,  probably  on 
the  20th  of  August,  was  born  to  his  widowed  mother 
Amina,  Muhammad  ("the  Praised"),  grandson  and 
ward  of  the  aged  Abd  al  Muttalib,  the  venerable  chief 
of  Mecca,  who  rejoiced  greatly  over  his  birth;  for 
Abdallah,  the  child's  father,  lately  dead,  was  best- 
beloved  of  his  many  sons.  The  fond  imagination  of 
later  times  wove  around  the  child's  birth,  and  his 
parents  and  ancestry  for  many  generations,  tales  of 
wonder  on  which  we  need  not  linger :  a  light  of  glory 
had  passed  from  one  patriarch  to  another,  marking  out 
the  blessed  line  in  which  the  last  of  the  Prophets  was  to 
be  born ;  his  mother  (as  her  time  drew  near)  was  visited 
by  wondrous  dreams,  foreshadowing  the  matchless 
grandeur  that  awaited  her  child ;  and  in  distant  Persia, 
so  runs  the  legend,  the  throne  and  city  of  the  great 
King-of-Kings  were  shaken  by  a  mighty  earthquake. 
The  child  was  indeed  born  to  such  a  marvellous  destiny, 
his  achievements  in  the  sixty-three  years  of  his  allotted 
span  of  life  were  so  great,  his  influence  on  all  after- 
ages  has  been  so  profound  and  widespread,  the  personal 
devotion  of  hundreds  of  millions  of  men,  who  have  in  the 
past  thirteen  centuries  looked  on  him  as  all  but  divine, 
so  intense,  that  no  wonders  of  legend  can  surprise  us, 
and  we  note  them  as  evidence  of  the  deep  veneration 
which  the  highest  human  power  will  always  command 
from  men.  Yet,  as  his  followers  call  their  religion — 
after  his  own  example — not  by  the  Teacher's  name,  but 
Islam,  "  self -surrender  "  (to  God  Almighty),  so  do  they 
reckon  their  Era,  as  we  shall  hereafter  see,  not  from  his 
birth,  but  from  the  turning-point  of  his  life,  the  Hijra 
("  Hegira  ")  or  Flight  from  Mecca  to  Medina,  when  at  the 
age  of  fifty-two  he  ceased  to  be  merely  the  Preacher  to  a 


4  MUHAMMAD  AND   HIS  POWER 

o-ainsaying  people,  a  "  Warner  "  with  no  commission  or 

autliority  to  compel,  and  became,  at  the  head  of  a  small 

band  of  devoted  followers,  ever-increasing  thenceforward, 

a  temporal  Chief  as  well  as  a  Prophet  of  righteousness, 

able  and  resolved  to  force  on  all  the  tribes  of  Arabia  belief 

in  One  God  and  in  himself  as  the  chosen  Apostle  of  God. 

The  expansion  of  Muhammad's  views  we  shall  trace 

in    his    life,    together    with    the    development   of   his 

character.     Like  Buddhism  and  Christianity,  Islam  is 

a  missionary  religion,  as  every  living  faith  must  be; 

but  the  ways  by   which   each  of  the   three   religions 

has  extended   its  dominion  have  differed  widely,  and 

we  are  entitled  to  judge  the  spirit  of  each   not  only 

by  its  methods,  but  by  the  commands  of  the  founder 

on  the  matter.     Of  Buddhism  we  know  too  little  to 

say  whether  force  and  authority  were  used  to  extend 

it,  but  assuredly  the  gentle  Gautama  never  sanctioned 

such   a   course,   and    the    four    hundred    millions    of 

Buddhists   may   be   claimed    as    nations    subdued   by 

peaceful  means ;  in  regard  to  our  own  Christian  faith, 

we  must   sadly   admit   that    it    has    been    too    often 

advanced  by  the  sword,  and  by  every  engine  of  civil 

and  temporal  compulsion,  but  this  has  been  done  in 

direct   defiance   of   the   Master's    commands,   whether 

given  by  Himself  or  by  His  disciples ;  but  the  spirit  of 

Islam  is  the  opposite,  and  the  Prophet,  who  two  years 

before  his  end  had  forbidden  all  but  his  own  followers 

to  approach  the  hallowed  shrines  of  Mecca,  left  on  his 

deathbed  the  solemn  command  that  only  Islam  should 

be  tolerated  in  the  confines  of  Arabia.     Outside  the 

peninsula  the  command  was  less  absolute :  the  choice 

was  to  be  offered  of  Islam  or  tribute,  but  submission  to 

one  or  the  other  alternative  was  required.     The  Sue- 


EXTENT  OF  ISLAM  5 

cessors  of  the  Prophet  carried  out  his  commands  only 
too  well,  and  their  fierce  and  gallant  soldiery,  before 
whose  earnest  faith  were  set  the  joys  of  Paradise  to 
every  man  who  fell  in  battle  for  the  religion,  went 
forth  conquering  and  to  conquer,  east  and  west,  and 
north  and  south,  till  the  banners  of  Islam  floated  from 
the  Pillars  of  Hercules  to  the  shores  of  the  Yellow  Sea. 
The  tide  has  ebbed  in  some  directions,  but  in  others  it 
has  flowed.  The  Iberian  peninsula  has  shaken  ofl*  the 
chains  of  Islam,  though  it  has  replaced  them  by  others ; 
in  Eastern  Europe  the  tide  was  stayed  more  than  two 
hundred  years  ago  by  John  Sobieski  before  the  walls 
of  Vienna;  but  elsewhere  the  progress  of  Mahomet- 
anism,  in  one  form  or  another,  more  simple  or  more 
complex,  has  been  steady  and  sure.  Among  the 
millions  of  India  its  conquests  are  considerable ;  in 
Africa — though  there  it  is  so  closely  allied  to  the  cruel 
and  accursed  system  of  slavery — it  is  making  mucli 
headway ;  while  the  maritime  provinces  of  China 
form  its  most  eastern  bulwark.  In  his  lifetime  the 
Prophet  foretold  that  his  followers  would  be  split  up 
into  no  less  than  seventy-three  sects — he  credited  the 
Christian  with  seventy-two ! — of  which  one  only 
would  hold  the  true  faith;  and  the  prediction  might 
be  justified  by  historical  evidence ;  but  heresy  and 
schism  seem  to  do  little  to  weaken  the  aggressive  force 
of  the  religion,  and  to-day,  though  politically  far  less 
powerful  than  of  old,  one-sixth  of  the  whole  human 
race  own  its  sway,  and  are  ready  to  fight  or  to  endure 
to  face  death  and  to  inflict  it,  with  the  battle-cry: 
"  There  is  no  god  but  the  God,  and  Muliammad  is  the 
Prophet  of  God!" 

It  is  a  commonplace  to  speak  of  the  influence   of 


6  MUHAMMAD  AND   HIS  POWER 

climate  and  gcograpliical  conditions  upon  the  nature 
and  thought  of  the  inhabitants  of  a  land,  and  the 
physical  character  of  the  Arabian  peninsula  is  so 
singular  that  we  may  readily  believe  that  it  has  had 
special  j)ower  to  mould  the  mind  and  manners  of  its 
peoples.  As  the  dreamy  vagueness  and  philosophic 
despair  of  Buddhism  ^  sprang  up  in  the  congenial  soil  of 
the  hot,  moist  valley  of  the  Ganges,  so  did  the  fiery, 
arid  lands  of  Arabia,  diversified  with  barren,  volcanic 
ranges  of  hills,  swept  by  sand-laden  whirlwinds,  and 
offering  to  its  hardy  indwellers  few  and  far-separated 
oases,  give  birth  to  the  stern  warrior-faith  of  Islam. 
Arabia,  divided  from  the  African  continent  by  the 
Red  Sea  and  from  the  rest  of  Asia  by  the  Persian 
Gulf  on  the  east  and  the  Syrian  desert  on  the  north, 
stretches  southward  to  the  Indian  Ocean  in  the  shape 
of  an  axe-head,  between  the  parallels  of  31°  and 
13°  N.  lat.,  and  those  of  34°  and  60°  E.  lone..,  of 
which  at  least  two-thirds  is  an  uninhabitable  desert, 
and  where  the  settled  states  are  divided  from  one 
another  by  great  stretches  of  sand.  The  Arabian 
peninsula  extends  over  an  area  of  nearly  a  million  and 
a  quarter  square  miles,  about  four-fifths  of  India  or 
China  proper.  Yet  its  population  is  calculated  by 
Palgrave  (1864)  as  no  more  than  seven  or  eight  millions, 
of  whom  he  reckons  about  one-seventh  only  as  nomad. 
In  Muhammad's  days  it  was  no  doubt  greater.  The 
country  that  extends  along  the  southern  shores  of  the 
Persian  Gulf  and  the  Sea  of  Oman,  facina;  Persia  across 
the  sea,  and  for  ages  forming  part  of  the  Persian  Empire, 

^  Indian  Buddhism,  the  early  doctrine.  The  florid,  degenerate  forms 
that  prevail  in  Burma,  in  China,  in  Tibet,  and  in  Mongolia  have  little 
save  the  name  to  connect  them  with  the  teaching  of  Gautama. 


THE  CRADLE-LAND  7 

as  it  enjoys  a  good  climate,  and  is  well  watered,  so 
it  has  always  been  a  highly  favoured  land,  a  land  of 
wealth  and  settled  habitation.  When  one  passes  away 
from  the  coast-lands,  crossing  the  western  barrier  o£ 
hills,  the  great  pathless  sandy  desert  stretches  in  front 
of  the  traveller  for  12  or  14  deo^rees  of  latitude  before 
he  reaches  the  barren,  broken  mountain-chain  which 
stretches  at  various  distances  nearly  parallel  to  the 
coast  of  the  Red  Sea.  The  northern  part  of  this 
chain  is  known  specially  as  the  Hijaz  or  Boundary- 
land,  and  there — in  a  plain  among  the  arid,  volcanic 
hills — lies  Mecca,  the  birthplace  of  Muhammad,  and 
scene  of  his  earlier  preaching,  whilst  Medina,  the 
cradle  of  his  kingdom  and  his  last  resting-place,  lies 
about  240  miles  due  north,  and  at  a  distance  from 
the  sea  at  Yambu  much  greater  than  that  of  Mecca 
from  its  seaport  at  Jedda.  This  is  the  sacred  land  of 
Islam,  the  blessed  country  of  the  "Two  Sanctuaries" 
(Haramain),  whither  flock,  in  long  lines,  year  by  year 
at  the  sacred  season,  converging  streams  of  pilgrims 
from  the  remotest  corners  of  Asia  and  Africa,  to  fulfil 
the  great  duty  of  pilgrimage,  laid  upon  the  conscience 
of  every  pious  Muslim,  to  be  performed  (if  health  and 
circumstances  do  not  absolutely  prevent)  once  in 
his  lifetime.  In  this,  too,  Islam  has  borrowed  from 
the  kindred  nation  of  Israel,  and  the  followers  of 
Muhammad  traverse  the  hills  that  stand  round  about 
Mecca  or  Medina  to  gather  in  the  hallowed  plains,  as  the 
Israelites  of  old  flocked  to  Jerusalem  at  the  great 
Passover  Feast.  Then,  too,  during  the  sacred  months,  a 
truce  of  God  is  proclaimed,  though  in  tliese  degenerate 
times  the  robber  tribes  of  the  desert  and  the  fanatical 
Wahhabis  make  little  scruple  of  attacking  and  plunder- 


8  MUHAMMAD  AND   HIS  POWER 

ing  the  pilgrim  caravans,  whether  they  come  from  the 
orthodox  centres  of  Stamboul,  Cairo,  and  Bombay,  or 
from  the  heretical  land  of  Persia. 

The  Hijaz,  then,  the  sacred  land  of  Islam,  from  which 
the  new  religion  went  forth  to  conquer  first  the  great 
Arabian  peninsula,  and  then  a  large  part  of  the  decay- 
ing Roman  Empire,  and  to  sweep  eastwards  in  its 
triumphant  march  to  the  shores  of  the  China  Sea,  is  a 
country  lying  between  the  mountain-chain  that  divides 
it  from  the  vast  central  tableland  of  Arabia  and  the 
Red  Sea.  It  is  an  irregular  parallelogram  of  about 
250  miles  in  length  by  150  in  breadth,  and  the  barren, 
sandy  soil  affords  but  scanty  subsistence  to  its  in- 
habitants. From  of  old  caravans  had  held  their  way 
through,  southward  from  Egj^pt  and  Palestine,  north- 
ward from  Hadramaut  and  the  shores  of  the  Indian 
Ocean,  and  a  very  recent  traveller,  Mr.  Bent,  followed 
with  interest  the  now  deserted  paths  worn  by  count- 
less thousands  of  camels  in  the  far-off  centuries  when 
transit  by  sea  was  rare  and  timid.  Those  southern 
lands  of  Arabia  seem,  though  trustworthy  record 
there  is  none,  to  be  the  home  of  the  earliest  races  of 
the  peninsula,  pushed  down  before  invaders  of  a 
higher  type.  To  the  north  stretches  a  pathless  desert 
of  sand,  roughly  from  15°  to  24°  N.  lat.,  and  from 
45°  to  56°  E.  long. ;  to  the  west  and  south  lies  Yaman, 
Arabia  "the  Happy"  (more  properly  "of  the  right 
hand");  further  north  the  more  fertile,  settled,  and 
powerful  kingdom  of  Najd,  the  seat  now  of  Wahhabi 
power,  the  caput  mortiviiin  of  puritan  Islam,  whose  dry 
tableland,  bounded  on  every  side  by  wide  belts  of 
desert,  is  the  home  of  the  noblest  breed  of  Arab  horses. 
Beyond  the  desert  belt  to  the  north-west  is  the  Shammar 


INFLUENCE  OF  RACE  g 

highland  state,  then  more  desert,  and  then  at  length 
the  fertile  tracts  of  Syria  and  Mesopotamia,  scene  of 
the  first  foreign  conquests  of  Islam.  The  above  very 
brief  sketch  of  the  Arabian  peninsula  and  its  chief 
divisions  will  explain  its  isolation,  and  how  it  defied 
through  the  ages  all  attempts  to  conquer  or  even  to 
explore  it.  Roman  poets  miglit  tell  of  its  fabled  riches, 
and  Jewish  myth  might  vaunt  its  marvels,  but  the 
leo^ions  of  .Rome  won  but  few  and  fleetinof-  victories 
on  its  soil,  and  retired  vanquished,  or  left  their  bones 
to  whiten  on  its  pathless  deserts  and  under  its  pitiless 
sun. 

From  the  land  we  pass  to  the  people.  The  evidence 
of  language  shows  conclusively  that  the  peninsula 
has  been  peopled,  apart  from  a  trifling  admixture  of 
African  blood,  by  a  Semitic  race,  kindred  to  Hebrews, 
Phoenicians,  and  Assyrians;  but  the  permanence  of 
language-type  is  so  great  as  to  leave  a  profound  scholar 
like  Wria;ht  in  doubt  w^hich  of  the  sister-tono-ues, 
Assyrian  or  Arabic,  was  the  elder.  Arabian  historians 
before  Muhammad  there  were  none,  and  those  who  came 
after  joined  to  the  want  of  critical  method  minds  warped 
by  theologic  bias.  The  pious  Muslim  was  bound  to 
trace  the  origin  of  the  nation  back  through  Ishmael  to 
Abraham,  and  then  back  to  our  first  father  Adam,  who 
himself  built  the  sacred  Kaaba  ("Cube-house")  after 
the  model  of  the  heavenly  temple  which  had  been 
shown  him  in  a  vision.  Palgfrave  inclines  to  think  that 
the  lowest  stratum  of  the  Arab  peoples  came  eastward 
from  Africa,  and  that  the  northern  invasion  was  also  of 
African  origin,  modified  by  previous  settlement  in  Asia, 
and  driven  south  before  the  Turanian  wave.  This, 
however,  in  the  face  of  the  evidence  from  language, 


10         MUHAMMAD  AND   HIS  POWER 

does  not  seem  a  safe  view ;  the  settlement  indicated  in 
Genesis,  adopted  and  enlarged  by  Arabic  tradition,  and 
systematised  in  the  Quran  and  the  Traditions  of  the 
Prophet,  which  ascribes  the  final  peopling  of  North 
Arabia  to  about  2000  B.C.,  is  certainly  nearer  the  truth. 
As  far  back  as  we  have  any  record,  the  inhabitants 
have  been  divided  into  the  nomad  Bedouins  (Bidawi  = 
man  of  the  desert)  and  the  folk  of  the  town.  The 
former  led,  and  to  this  day  lead,  an  unsettled  life, 
driving  their  flocks  and  herds  from  pasture  to  pasture 
divided  into  small  tribal  groups,  loosely  compacted  in 
larger  clans.  Passionate,  cunning,  and  revengeful,  they 
carry  on  the  blood-feud  from  generation  to  generation  ; 
their  much-praised  loyalty  to  their  salt  may  be  gauged 
by  the  undoubted  fact  that  frequently  they  have  led 
haj)less  travellers  and  whole  caravans  astray  in  the 
desert,  there  to  perish  from  tliirst,  that  their  faithless 
guides  might  serve  themselves  heirs  to  their  property ; 
and  the  fervour  of  their  religion  is  shown  by  their  own 
saying,  quoted  by  Burton :  "  We  pray  not,  because  we 
must  drink  the  water  of  ablution;  we  give  no  alms, 
because  we  ask  them  (sturdy  beggars  they  are  too !) ; 
we  fast  not  the  Ramazan  month,  because  we  starve 
throughout  the  year ;  and  we  do  no  pilgrimage,  because 
the  world  is  the  House  of  Allah."  Till  Muhammad 
welded  them  for  a  time  into  a  warrior  nation  they  had 
owned  no  common  bond  of  union,  and  the  bands  were 
soon  again  i-elaxed  after  the  work  of  conquest,  even  as 
the  tribes  have  for  the  most  part  thrown  off  the  garb 
of  his  religion  and  fallen  back  into  their  primitive 
paganism.  Sun-worship  is  widely  prevalent,  their 
ideas  of  a  future  life  are  crude  and  vague,  and  gross 
superstition  darkens  their  lives.      Their  slender  wealth 


ARAB  CHx\RACTER  ii 

consists  in  horses  for  battle  or  the  chase,  in  herds  of 
camels,  flocks  of  sheep  and  goats,  and  the  few  black 
tents  that  form  their  encampments.  The  tribal  govern- 
ment is  scarcely  effective,  and  "  every  man  does  that 
which  is  right  in  his  own  eyes,"  so  long  as  he  does  not 
incur  the  dread  penalty  of  the  blood-feud.  Naturally, 
each  tribe  has  its  own  recognised  area  to  wander  over, 
and  encroachment  is  jealously  resisted;  and  any  tribe 
that  is  wronged  in  its  honour  or  its  possessions  can 
reckon  to  the  uttermost  on  support  from  all  those  with 
which  it  counts  kindred  or  alliance. 

The  men  of  the  towns,  on  the  other  hand,  following 
the  peaceful  ways  of  commerce,  sending  out  their  cara- 
vans, and  having  multiplied  relations  with  foreign  lands 
and  peoples ;  delighting  in  social  intercourse,  so  far  as 
the  jealous  seclusion  of  women  is  compatible  therewith, 
— these  have  attained  to  a  plane  of  civilisation  far  above 
the  desert-rangers.  The  latter,  the  "  men  of  the  tent," 
heartily  despise  the  townsmen,  the  "  men  of  the  walls," 
levy  tribute  on  them  for  safe  passage  of  themselves 
and  their  goods,  and  let  slip  no  chance  of  pillaging 
them  when  they  can  do  so  in  safety.  The  desert  Arab, 
brave  to  desperation  when  necessary,  has  no  wish  to 
risk  life  or  limb  when  he  can  avoid  it.  He  feels  no 
shame  in  methods  of  attack  or  defence  that  more 
civilised  nations  brand  as  cowardly  or  even  treacherous, 
for  usually  his  object  is  plunder  only,  and  on  the  life  of 
others  he  sets  no  high  price,  though  he  be  very  careful 
of  his  own, — and  of  that  of  anyone  whom  he  holds  to 
be  under  his  guard  or  protection.  The  old  chivalrous 
feelings,  which  in  the  golden  days  of  the  "  Ignorance  " 
bound  the  host  to  do  all  things  for  the  safety,  honour, 
and  welfare  of  his  guest,  still  hold  sway  in  the  desert ; 


12         MUHAMMAD  AND   HIS  POWER 

the  tie  of  "  brotherhood,"  usually  formed  by  the  Eastern 
means  of  a  present,  secures  the  stranger  from  wrong, 
though  it  is  highly  dangerous  to  presume  very  far  on 
the  immunity,  and  those  who  have  travelled  among 
the  tribes  strongly  advise  all  who  follow  their  example 
not  to  make  any  display  that  might  excite  the  covetous- 
ness  of  their  hosts.^  The  picture  which  the  evidence 
compels  one  to  draw  of  the  social  and  moral  state  and 
qualities  which  really  prevail  in  Arabia  is  not  attract- 
ive, nor  is  it  that  with  which  our  fancy  is  familiar. 
In  the  next  chapter  we  shall  see  the  more  pleasing 
image  which  is  presented  by  the  poets  and  annalists  to 
whom  we  are  indebted  for  all  we  know  of  Arab  ways 
and  thoughts  in  the  days  before  Muhammad, — the 
"times  of  Ignorance,"  as  Muslims  count  all  the  a^es 
before  his  revelation  opened  the  eyes  of  their  mind  to 
the  duties  of  life  and  the  awful  realities  of  the  after- 
world. 

^  This  is  from  Bmton's Pilgrimage.  Elsewhere  he  says  :  "The  baser 
sort  of  Badawi  is  never  to  he  trusted  :  he  is  a  traitor  born.  Neither 
oath  nor  kindness  can  bind  him  :  he  unites  the  cruelty  of  the  cat  with 
the  wildness  of  the  wolf. "     Palgrave  says  much  the  same. 


CHAPTER    II 

The  Arabs  before  Islam— Social  Condition— Religious  Beliefs- 
Arab  Poetry  and  Arab  Life— Tribal  Ties— Hiltim  Tai— 
Select  Specimens  of  pre-Islamic  Poetry. 

An  eloquent  scholar  in  our  own  day  laments  that  we 
can  no  longer  see  the  true  Arab  as  he  was  in  the 
"time  of  the  Ignorance," — "a  noble  type  of  man, 
though  there  be  nobler."  Muhammad,  he  adds,  in  part 
destroyed  the  Arab  in  creating  the  Muslim,  and 
effected  thereby  a  temporary  good  and  a  lasting 
harm.  There  is  ground  for  Mr.  Poole's  lament,  but  it 
is  the  law  of  this  world  that  no  advance  can  be  made 
without  the  sacrifice  of  something  that  we  would  not 
willingly  miss,  and  it  is  easy  to  be  carried  away  by 
enthusiasm  for  the  past,  when  its  beauties  have  been 
embalmed  in  deathless  poems,  while  its  darker  features 
have  been  softened  or  altogether  obliterated  by  the 
merciful  fingers  of  time.  With  men  and  with  nations 
the  same  principle  holds,  that  we  speak  "  good  only  of 
the  dead  " ;  as  the  splendid  valour  and  constancy  and 
skill  of  CsBsar  blaze  in  our  histories,  and  his  ruthless 
massacres  and  enslavement  of  whole  nations  in  Gaul 
are  forgotten ;  as  in  almost  our  own  day  the  brilliant 
strategy  and  victories  of  the  first  Napoleon  have 
drawn  a  veil  of  glamour  over  his  crooked  policy,  his 
treacheries,  his  mercilessness, — even  so  have  the  poets 


13 


14         MUHAMMAD  AND   HIS  POWER 

of  Arabia  thrown  a  halo  of  glory  round  the  lives  and 
deeds  of  the  old  heroes  of  the  wild.  The  picture 
drawn  by  the  converts  to  Islam  of  the  state  in  which 
they  and  their  forefathers  had  lived,  "  without  God 
and  without  hope  in  the  world,"  till  Muhammad 
brought  his  revelation,  is  a  very  dark  one,  as  we  shall 
see  hereafter ;  and  it  is  necessary  to  bear  in  mind  their 
witness  while  we  listen  to  the  more  pleasing  music 
of  old  Arab  "  criticism  of  life."  New  converts  would, 
in  their  fervid  zeal  for  the  faith  they  had  embraced, 
inevitably  deepen  the  shadows  in  the  picture  they 
drew  of  the  life  they  had  forsaken,  but  the  old  poets 
would  as  certainly  heighten  its  beauties  and  disguise 
its  loathly  characters.  The  legislation  of  the  new 
religion  proves  an  earlier  state  of  morals  and  manners 
terrible  in  the  extreme ;  questions  recorded  in  the 
Traditions  reveal  the  common  practice  of  wickedness 
to  which  one  dare  not  allude ;  the  absolute  instability 
of  the  marriage  tie,  the  great  prevalence  of  female 
infanticide ;  and  the  hard  measure  commonly  dealt 
out  to  orphans,  are  but  a  few  of  the  darker  traits 
that  marked  the  life  of  the  older  desert  polity.  For 
this  last  misery  Muhammad,  himself  born  after  his 
father's  death,  and  in  early  childhood  bereaved  of  a 
well-loved  mother  also,  was  peculiarly  sympathetic  and 
pitiful ;  and  no  part  of  his  law  excites  our  admiration 
more  than  that  in  which  he  preaches  justice,  kindness, 
loving  care  for  those  whom  fate  has  bereft  of  their 
natural  guardians,  and  with  burning  eloquence  lays 
down  the  high  duty  of  filial  love  and  obedience.^ 

^  A  tradition  tells  that  he  ordered  one  of  his  followers  to  put  away 
the  wife  he  loved  because  his  father  desired  it.  Again  he  said,  "The 
keys  of  Paradise  lie  at  a  mother's  feet." 


LAND  AND  LANGUAGE  15 

All  who  have  travelled  in  the  desert  are  asfreed  in 
the  matchless  charm  of  its  clear,  life-giving  air.  It 
casts  a  spell  over  body  and  mind  which  is  vainly 
sought  elsewliere,  and  he  who  has  once  known  the 
witchery  of  the  secret  of  the  desert,  with  its  sense  of 
unfettered  freedom  amid  infinite  solitudes,  thinks  of 
it  ever  after  with  unspeakable  joy  and  regret.  If 
such  be  the  feelings  of  Western  travellers,  who  in 
their  desert  wanderings  must  miss  all  the  softness 
and  comfort  of  their  common  daily  existence,  we 
shall  not  wonder  at  the  intensity  of  life  that  coursed 
in  the  veins  of  the  children  of  the  wild.  Men  of 
strong  passions  were  they,  fiery  of  temper,  ardent  in 
love  and  bitter  in  hate;  delighting  in  war,  in  the 
chase,  and  the  banquet ;  not  sparing  of  the  wine-cup 
at  the  feast,  but  of  unmatched  tolerance  of  cold  and 
thirst  and  hunger  when  need  w^as.  If  they  did  not 
"lisj)  in  numbers,"  the  natural  harmonies  of  their 
tongue  lent  grace,  dignity,  and  eloquence  to  their 
utterance;  they  delighted  in  every  form  of  poetry 
and  eloquence,  praise  of  themselves,  their  kindred, 
and  their  friends,  or  bitter  shafts  of  blame  and  satire 
against  their  foes ;  and  the  wonderful  instrument 
which  Muhammad  wielded  to  crush  his  enemies,  to 
inspire  his  followers,  to  preach  the  Faith,  or  to  curse 
the  foes  thereof, — in  the  one  great  "  miracle  "  of  which 
he  boasted,  his  Quran, — was  forged  and  perfected 
under  the  black  tents  of  the  Bedouins,  where  its 
echoes  may  still  be  caught  in  almost  unsullied  purity. 
The  Prophet  himself  frowned  upon  poetry  and  poets, 
though  he  confessed  their  power,  and  was  glad  to 
use  the  weapon  of  satire  against  his  enemies, — though, 
alas !    nearly   all   the   chief    poets   of   his   time   w^ere 


1 6         MUHAMMAD   AND   HIS   POWER 

arrayed  against  him ;  to  music  also  he  was  strangely 
dull,  which  is  the  more  to  be  wondered  at  as  his 
nervous  susceptibility  was  great,  and  the  powerful, 
deep  tones  of  his  staunch  Bilal — who  first  called  the 
Faithful  to  public  prayer,  and  who  held  his  high  office 
for  twenty  long  years  —  was  more  grateful  to  the 
Prophet's  heart  than  sweetest  strains  of  harp  or  pipe.^ 

But  when  the  stern  strain  of  the  earlier  struirsfles 
and  triumphs  of  the  Faith  were  overpast,  when 
Muhammad  and  the  grave  Companions  had  gone  to 
their  rest,  when  pomp  and  luxury  had  revived  in 
the  new  capitals  of  Damascus  and  Baghdad,  then  was 
the  old  speech  and  poetry  of  the  desert  diligently 
sought  out  and  recorded.  Learned  men  strove  to 
steep  themselves  in  the  old  fountains  of  eloquence, 
the  springs  of  which  were  fast  drying  up,  and  the 
priceless  treasures  of  poetry  were  gathered — known 
to  us  as  the  Miudlaqdt^  or  Seven  Odes,  the  fairest 
gems  in  Arabia's  crown  of  poesy;  the  Hanidsa  or 
Heroic  Lays,  a  collection  of  lyric  gems,  grave  and  gay, 
trumpet-calls  to  battle,  praise  of  the  mighty  dead, 
love-songs  and  dirges  and  satires — a  priceless  and 
unique  mirror  of  old  Arab  life ;  and  the  Book  of 
Songs  (Kitdb  al  Aghdm),  where  music  is  wedded  to 
the  verse,  if  haply  the  old  spirit  could  be  recalled, 
and  the  echoes  of  the  old  melodies  be  revived.  These 
are  the  chief  treasure-houses  of  old  Arab  poetry,  but 
there  are  also  collections  of  tribal  poems  and  the 
works  of  single  authors  (as  of  Imr  ul  Kais  and  Labid), 

^  Poetic  feeling  is  not  seldom  divorced  from  love  of  music.  In  our 
own  time,  Mr.  Swinburne  is  said  to  be  strangely  dead  to  music,  whilst 
Robert  Browning  was  a  great  lover  of  it. 

2  Not  tlio  "Suspended"  Poems,  as  used  to  be  said  :  tliey  never  were 
hung  up  in  the  Kaaba,  nor  were  they  written  in  letters  of  gold. 


POETRY   OF  ARABIA  17 

which  have  been  the  delight  of  generation  after 
generation, — monuments  more  enduring  than  brass  of 
the  great  warrior  poets  and  iioetesses  that  lived  and 
loved,  and  fought  and  sang  in  the  days  of  the 
"  Ignorance." 

The  Arab  of  the  desert  then,  as  we  find  him  in 
his  poets,  was  brave,  generous,  hospitable,  and  loyal 
of  heart.  No  sacrifice  was  too  great,  nor  any  danger 
too  terrible,  for  him  to  meet  in  the  cause  of  his  family, 
his  tribe,  or  his  guest  Love  for  friend,  or  wife,  or 
child ;  pride  in  his  own  valour  and  exploits,  and  in  the 
glory  of  his  clan  and  its  connections ;  laments  for  the 
worthy  dead,  and  passionate  cries  for  vengeance,  or 
savage  delight  in  wreaking  it ;  strange  weird  pictures 
of  dimly-guessed  existence  beyond  the  grave,  when 
the  storms  and  the  hopes  and  the  joys  and  the 
troubles  of  life  are  past, — all  these  we  find  in  the 
old  Arab  poetry.  There  too  we  find  the  lover's  long- 
ings and  the  bridegroom's  gladness,  frank,  trustful 
society  of  young  men  and  maidens,  the  complete  con- 
fidence of  the  warrior-chief  in  the  wife  who  bore  his 
children,  who  rules  his  household  wisely  and  nobly,  in 
whom  his  heart  trusts,  and  who  "shall  do  him  good 
and  not  evil  all  the  days  of  liis  life."  The  condition 
of  women  at  all  events,  the  true  measure  of  all 
civilisation,  could  scarcely  have  been  higher  than  it 
was  among  the  Arabs  of  the  desert ;  how  that  condi- 
tion was  lowered,  and  the  character  and  self-respect 
of  half  the  race  degraded  by  Islam,  will  be  told  in  its 
place.  Writing,  of  course,  there  was  little  or  none,  the 
literature  of  the  desert  was  preserved  "living  on  the 
lips  of  men  "  and  graven  on  the  tablets  of  their  hearts ; 
the  perfect  warrior  was  also  a  famous  poet,  and  the 
2 


1 8         MUHAMMAD  AND   HIS  POWER 

name  of  many  a  poetess  adorns  the  Arab  bead-roll  of 
glory.  The  staple  of  their  poetry  is,  however,  largely 
a  description  of  the  joys  of  battle,  the  struggle  for 
mastery,  and  the  perils  of  the  long,  dark  journey ings 
through  the  waste;  the  noble  horse  and  camel,  the 
keen,  flashing  sword  in  the  battle,  the  deadly  lance 
and  arrow ;  the  swift,  sudden  storms  that  sweep  over 
mountain  and  plain,  driving  the  goats  and  Avild 
antelopes  in  panic  fear  to  their  fastnesses,  while  the 
lightning  flashes,  and  the  thunder  roars,  and  the  rain- 
torrents  hurry  down  the  stony  watercourses, — these 
are  the  themes  of  their  song.  And  prefaced  to  nearly 
every  one  of  the  longer  poems  is  a  wail  of  lament 
over  the  ashes  of  a  long-deserted  encampment,  once 
the  home  of  a  beloved  maiden,  a  tearful  note  of  human 
sorrow  to  attune  the  heart  to  softened  melancholy. 
One  type,  one  theme,  is  strangely  absent  from  it  all, — 
the  devotional.  Praise  or  prayer  is  seldom  heard, 
though  wild  and  terrible  oaths  are  not  wanting.  The 
old  Arab  was  above  all  things  self-centred,  self-reliant, 
confident  that  the  cunning  of  his  own  strong  right 
hand  could  conquer  fate.  ^  His  worship  did  not  greatly 
pervade  his  life  or  his  thoughts,  and  the  shadowy 
terrors  with  which  he  peopled  the  waste, — jinns  and 
ghCds  and  ghostly  owls  that  wailed  around  the  graves, 
thirsting  for  the  blood  of  requital,  were  rather  gloomy 
phantoms  than  real  terrors.  The  warrior  would  take 
the  arrows  of  divination,  but  if  the  answer  squared 
not  with  his  desire,  he  would  hurl  them  back  Avrath- 
fully  and  scornfully  in  the  face  of  his  idol. 

Family  or  perhaps,  rather,  tribal  pride  was  one  of 
the  strongest  passions  among  the  Arabs.  Every  man 
among  them  was  a  skilled  genealogist,  and  no  member 


SOCIAL  CONDITIONS  19 

o£  an  inferior  clan  was  admitted  to  mate  with  a  maiden 
of  more  exalted  degree.     This  it  was  that,  as  among  the 
proud  Rajput  races  in  India,  prompted  the  murder  of 
infant  daughters.     But,  within  the  limits  which  family 
honour  laid  down,  an  Arab  maiden  was  pretty  free  to 
choose  her  own  husband.     Very  often,  however,  it  was 
made  a  condition  of  marriage  that  the  husband  should 
join  his  wife's  clan ;  the  children  followed  the  mother's 
kindred,   and   the   wife   was   as    free   to   dismiss   her 
husband  for  good  cause — and  such  was  liberally  con- 
strued— as  the  husband  to  put  away  his  wife.      Dis- 
missal was  commonly  signified  by  no  more  formality 
than  turnino^  about  the  door  of  the  tent.     One  notable 
historical  instance  is  the  divorce  of  the  noble  Hatim, 
whose  name  is  for  ever  famous  for  unstinted  liberalit}^ 
Brave,  loyal,  generous,  it  is  told  of   him  that,  when 
almost  starving   along  with   his   family,  he   slew  his 
peerless  warhorse  to  make  a  feast  for  the  hungry  family 
of   a  poor  neighbour  who  appealed  to  him.      Again, 
when  he  had  smitten  down  in  battle  a  mortal  foe  and 
held  him  at  his  mercy,  he  yielded  up  his  own  spear  and 
presented  himself  defenceless,  "  because  he  asked  a  gift 
of  me."     Even  as  a  boy,  when  tending  his  grandfather's 
camels,  he   slew   of   them   one   apiece   to  feast  three 
wandering  poets  from  Hira,  and  presented  them  each 
with  one  hundred  in  return  for  poems  in  praise  of 
himself  and  his  tribe.     It  is  not  easy  to  condemn  the 
wife  who,  for  her  children's  sake,  put  away  such  a 
wasteful  lord,  nor  does  it  seem  just  to  condemn  her 
(as  Mr.  Poole  does)  for  niggardliness.      The  story  of 
Hatim's  divorce  has  its  chief  value   in   showing  the 
complete  power  which  even  the  married  women  retained 
over  themselves.      Many  recent  scholars  have  pushed 


20         MUHAMMAD  AND   HIS   POWER 

the  inference  mucli  further,  and  have  maintained  that 
down  even  to  late  pre-Islamic  times  kindred  was 
counted  in  Arabia,  as  it  is  to  this  day  in  many  bar- 
barous parts  of  the  world,  through  the  mothers,  and  not 
in  the  male  line.  The  evidence  does  not  seem  to 
warrant  the  conclusion,  but  the  whole  subject  is  worthy 
of  study ;  the  retention  of  the  children  as  part  of  the 
mother's  clan  is  natural  enough  in  a  state  of  societ}' 
where  power  depended  on  the  numbers  that  could 
stand  up  to  "  speak  with  their  enemies  in  the  gate," 
where  the  individual  family  was  merged  in  the  clan ; 
and  the  principle  finds  its  parallel  in  the  pretensions 
at  the  present  day  of  the  Church  of  Rome  in  mixed 
marriages.  It  may  be  added  that  the  bond  of  blood 
was  peculiarly  strong,  and  a  young  clansman  had  by 
general  tribal  law  the  first  claim  on  the  hand  of  his 
cousin,  so  much  so  that  "  daughter  of  my  uncle  "  was 
almost  synonymous  with  "  wife." 

To  the  prose  of  my  picture  I  now  add  as  a  pendant, 
some  few  passages  chosen  from  Sir  C.  J.  Ly all's  Ancient 
Arabian  Poetry,  than  which  not  many  books  are  more 
delightful  to  a  lover  of  poetry,  or  more  instructive  and 
stimulating  to  a  scholar. 

First  we  have  two  or  three  snatches  of  song, 
showing  the  delights  of  peaceful  life,  and  how  the 
Arab  looked  forward  to  Death,  the  "  abridger  of 
delights  and  separator  of  friends."  Both  in  their 
gladder  and  their  sadder  strains  they  match  well 
with  Horace. 

"  Roast  flesh,  the  glow  of  fiery  wine, 
to  speed  on  camel  fleet  and  sure, 
As  tliy  soul  lists  to  urge  her  on 

through  all  the  hollow's  l)readth  and  lengtli ; 


"AERE  PERENNIUS"  21 

White  women,  statue-like,  that  trail 
rich  robes  of  price  with  golden  hem, 

Wealth,  easy  lot,  no  dread  of  ill, 

to  hear  the  lute's  complaining  string, — 

These  are  Life's  joys.     For  man  is  set 
the  prey  of  Time,  and  Time  is  change. 

Life  strait  or  large,  great  store  or  nought, 
all's  one  to  Time,  all  men  to  Death." 

And  so  the  poet  goes  on  to  name  men  and  races  of  old 
renown  whom  Time  and  Death  had  swept  away,  in 
tones  that  remind  us  of  the  lingering  laments  of 
Horace  or  Villon. 

«  Cahpe  Diem  !  " 

"  Come,  friend  and  fellow,  come — for  sometimes  is  Folly  sweet ! 

so  come,  let  us  greet  our  band  of  drinkers  aglow  with  wine. 

And  wash  from  our  hearts   sour  speech  of  wisdom  with  cups 

abrim, 

and  cut  short  the  Ills  of  Life  with  laughter  and  jest  and 

Yea,  when  once  a  moment  comes  of  rest  from  the  whirl,  be 
quick 
and  grasp  it :   for  Time's  tooth  bites  and  c^uits  not ;   and 
mischief  waits  ; 
And  sure,  if  a  bright  hour  lifts  thy  soul  to  a  little  peace, 
enough  in  thy  path  there  lies  of  shadow  and  grief  and 
pain." 

"Eheu,  Fugaces" 
"  Alas,  my  soul,  for  Youth  that's  gone — 
no  light  thing  lost  I  when  he  fled  ! 

What  time  I  trailed  my  skirts  in  pride 
and  shook  my  locks  at  the  tavern's  door. 

Nay,  envy  not  a  man  that  men 
say,  '  Age  has  made  him  ripe  and  wise ' : 

Though  thou  love  life  and  live  long  safe, 
long  living  leaves  its  print  on  thee  ! " 


22         MUHAMMAD  AND   HIS   POWER 

"The  Place  that  knew  Them  knows  Them  no  more." 

"  Before  tlie  door  of  each  and  all  a  slumber-place  is  ready  set 
men  wane  and   dwindle,  and  the   graves   in  number  grow 
from  day  to  day  : 

And  ever  more  and  more  outworn  the  traces   fade  of  hearth 
and  home, 
and  over  yonder  for  some  dead  is  newly  built   a  house  of 
clay. 

Yea,  neighbours  are  they  of   the  living  :   near  and  close  their 
fellowship  ; 
but  if  thy  soul  would  seek  their  converse,  thou  must  seek 
it  far  away." 

From  the  contemphition  of  death  we  rise  to  thoughts  of 
the  Almighty,  All-wise  Ruler,  who  rewards  every  man 
according  to  his  works,  a  thought  anterior  to  Islam, 
and  probably  borrowed  from  Jewish  or  Christian 
teaching — 

"  Yea,  the  righteous  shall  keep  the  wa}^  of  the  righteous, 
and  to  God  turn  the  steps  of  all  that  abideth ; 

And  to  God  ye  return,  ye  too  ;  with  Him  only 
rest  the  issues  of  things  and  all  that  they  gather. 

All  that  is  in  His  Book  of  Knowledge  is  reckoned, 
and  before  Him  revealed  lies  all  that  is  hidden. 

It  boots  not  to  hide  from  God  aught  evil  within  your  hearts : 
it  will  not  be  hid — what  men  would  hold  back  from  God, 
He  knows. 

It  may  be  its  meed  comes  late  :  in  the  Book  is  the  wrong  set 
down 
for  the  Beckoning  Day  :  it  may  be  that  \'cngeance  is  swift 
and  stern." 

Now  follows  part  of  the  dirge  which  a  brave  chief 
sang  for  himself  when,  before  his  death,  he  faced  the 
foes  that  had  overwhelmed  him — 


THE  ARAB   IDEAL  23 

*'  UplDraid  me  not,  ye  twain  :  enough  is  the  shame  for  me 
to  be  as  I  am  :  no  gain  upbraiding  to  you  or  me. 
Know  ye  not  that  in  reproach  is  little  that  profits  men? 
it  was  not  my  wont  to  blame  my  brother  when  I  was  free. 

Mulaika,  my  wife,  knows  well  that   time  Mas  when   I   stood 
forth 
a  lion  to  lead  men  on  or  face  those  that  rushed  on  me. 
Yea,  many  the  slaughtered  beast  I  gave  to  the  gamers,  oft 
I  journeyed  alone  where   none  would  venture  to  share  my 
way  ; 

And  ofttimes  I  slew,  to  feast  my  fellows,  the  beast  I  rode, 
and  ofttimes  I  rent  my  robe  in  twain  for  two  singing-girls. 

And  when  'neath  the  stress  of  spears  our  steeds  plunged  and 
broke  and  backed, 
yea,  mine  were  the  fingers  deft  that   turned  from  our  line 
their  steel. 

And  hosts  like  the  locusts'  swarm  have  swept  upon  me  alone, 
and   my  hand   it  was   that  stemmed   and   gathered   in   one 
their  spears. 

Now  am  I  as  though  I  ne'er  had  mounted  a  noble  steed, 
or  called  to  my  horsemen— Charge,  gain  space  for  our  men 
to  breathe  1 

Or  bought  for  a  wreath  of  gold  the  full  skin  of  wine,  or  cried 
to  true  hearts  at  play,— Heap  high  the  blaze  of  our  beacon- 
fire  ! " 

Next  I  give  a  longer  piece,  already  chosen  out  by 
Mr.  Poole  for  the  same  purpose,  to  show  in  what  things 
the  Arab  chief  set  his  glory,  and  on  what  his  heart 
and  love  were  fixed — 

"  A  mountain  we  have  where  dwells  he  whom  we  shelter  there, 
lofty,  before  whose  height  the  eye  falls  back  blunted  : 

Deep-based   is    its   root  below  ground,   while   overhead   there 
soars 
its  peak  to  the  stars  of  heaven  whereto  no  man  reaches. 


24         MUHAMMAD  AND   HIS  POWER 

A  folk  arc  we  wlio  deem  it  no  shame  to  be  slain  in  figlit, 
tliuiigli  that  he  the  deeming  thereof  of  Salul  and  Amir; 

Our  love  of  death  brings  near  to  us  our  days  of  doom, 
but  their  dooms  shrink  from  death  and  stand  far  distant. 

There  dies  among  us  no  lord  a  quiet  death  in  his  bed, 
and  never  is  blood  of  us  poured  forth  without  vengeance. 

Our   souls    stream   forth   in    a    flood    from   the   edge   of    the 
whetted  swords  : 
no  otherwise  than  so  does  our  spirit  leave  its  mansion. 

Pure  is  our  stock,  unsullied  :  fair  is  it  kept  and  bright 
by  mothers  whose  bed  bears  well,  and  fathers  mighty. 

To  the  best  of  the  uplands  we  wend,  and  when  the  season 
comes, 
we  travel  adown  to  the  best  of  fruitful  valleys. 

Like  rain  of  the  heaven  are  we  :  there  is  not  in  all  our  line 
one  blunt  of  heart,  nor  among  us  is  counted  a  niggard. 

We  say  nay  when  so  we  will  to  the  words  of  other  men  : 
but  no  man  to  us  says  nay  when  we  give  sentence. 

When  j^asses  a  lord  of  our  line,  in  his  stead  there  rises  straight 
a  lord  to  say  the  say  and  do  the  deeds  of  the  noble. 

Our  beacon  is  never  quenched  to  the  wanderer  of  the  night, 
nor  has  ever  a  guest  blamed  us  where  men  meet  together. 

Our  Days  are  famous  among  our  foemen,  of  fair  report, 
branded  and  blazed  with  glory  like  noble  horses. 

Our  swords  have  swept  throughout  all  lands  both  east  and 
west, 
and   gathered   many   a   notch   from   the   steel   of  hauberk- 
wearers  ; 

Not  used  are  they  when  drawn  to  be  laid  back  in  their  sheaths 
before  that  the  folk  they  meet  are  spoiled  and  scattered. 

If   thou  knowest  not,  ask   men  what  they  think   of  us   and 
them  : 
not  alike  is  he  who  knows  and  he  who  knows  not. 

The   children   of  Ad-Dagyiin  are   the   shaft  of   their  peoi:)le's 
mill  : 
around  it  turns  and  whirls,  while  they  stand  'midmost  " 


THE  ARAB   IDEAL  25 

Sir  Charles  Lyall's  volume  is,  as  I  have  said,  a 
delightful  one.  He  would  do  a  great  service  to 
scholars  and  to  lovers  of  poetry  if  he  would  give  us  a 
complete  translation  of  the  Hamasa,  thus  doing,  in  our 
own  tongue  and  in  the  light  of  fuller  knowledge,  what 
Riickert  did  more  than  fifty  years  ago  for  Germany. 


CHAPTEE   III 

Arabs  of  the  Town — Mecca's  Religious  Position — Arab  Eaces  and 
Languages — Dynasties — Yaman,  Abyssinia,  etc. — Christian 
Influences  :  Hira  and  Ghassan — Medina — Jewish  Influences 
— Pilgrimage  and  Months  of  Truce — Mecca  :  Quraish  and 
Qusai — Tribes  of  Central  Arabia — Medina. 

Having  tried  to  give  some  pictures  of  the  life  and 
character  of  the  desert  Arabs,  our  task  is  now  to 
sketch  the  stages  by  which  Arabia  was  prepared  for 
the  coming  of  that  great  master-mind  which  was  to 
revolutionise  it  and  conquer  lialf  the  known  world. 
The  task  is  not  easy,  nor  is  it  altogether  attractive. 
The  warrino^  mio^ratino^  tribes,  whose  meetinofs  and 
partings,  feuds  and  friendships,  make  the  web  of 
Arabia's  history,  are  not  less  perplexing  to  follow  in 
their  kaleidoscopic  changes  than  the  atoms  from  which 
Epicurus  fabled  that  the  universe  was  framed.  The 
two  leading  threads  through  the  mazes  are  found — first, 
in  the  religious  position  of  Mecca,  established  beyond 
dispute  from  the  earliest  times  of  which  we  have  any 
record,  and  continued  without  interruption  to  the  day 
when  the  reforming  exile,  thrust  out  ten  years  before, 
conquered  and  purified  and  transformed  it  to  be  the 
spiritual  capital  of  the  new  Faith;  second,  in  the 
migrations  of  the  great  Arab  nations,  caused  partly  by 
tliat  mysterious  impulse  which  has  in  all  ages  driven 


RACE  AND  LANGUAGE  27 

the  human  race  to  seek  new  homes  and  to  subdue 
lands  unknown  before,  partly  to  causes  which  we  can 
more  surely  trace. 

Arab  tradition  makes  the  great  southern  division  of 
the  race  to  spring  from  a  legendary  head,  Kahtan, 
whose  descendants,  originally  coming  from  the  north, 
flowed  down  like  a  great  river,  and  established  them- 
selves all  along  the  habitable  coast-lands,  by  the  Persian 
Gulf  on  the  east,  Hadramaut  on  the  south,  and  Yaman 
on  the  shores  of  the  Red  Sea.  Through  Arabia  flowed 
to  the  west  and  north  the  riches  of  India  as  well  as 
her  own  products, — gold,  frankincense,  and  myrrh ; 
ivory,  ebony,  and  precious  stones.  So  long  as  land- 
carriao^e  was  the  surer  and  safer,  so  lono^  did  the 
desert-navies  (as  we  may  call  them)  bear  the  precious 
bales  along  two  main  lines, — through  Yaman  and  the 
Hijaz  to  Syria  and  Egypt,  and  by  the  shores  of  the 
Persian  Gulf  to  Mesopotamia  and  the  neighbouring 
countries.  Kahtan  was  the  great  ancestor  of  the 
roaming  Arabs,  the  carriers  of  the  desert,  whose 
camels  bore  the  precious  merchandise;  and  Himyar 
("the  dusky"),  fabled  to  be  his  brother,  was  pro- 
genitor of  the  settled  inhabitants.  The  great  southern 
kingdoms,  of  which  Yaman  was  the  chief,  were  Him- 
yaritic ;  their  language  ^  is  the  South  Arabian,  divided 
into  three  great  branches,  corresponding  to  the  three 
southern  provinces  (Yaman,  Hadramaut,  and  Mahrab), 
and  surviving  now  only  in  a  multitude  of  rock-inscrip- 
tions, ranging  in  date  probably  between  the  fourth 
and  seventh  centuries  of  our  era,  thus  dying  with  the 
advent  of  Islam  and  the  triumph  of  its  tongue.  Cross- 
ing over  into  Africa,  we  have  the  Geez  and  Abyssinian 

^  See  Wright,  Comi-).  Gram,  of  Semitic  Languages,  p.  28  and  foil. 


28         MUHAMMAD  AND   HIS   POWER 

with  its  cognates.  From  the  fertile  land  of  Yaman 
the  stream  of  trade  passed  northward  through  the 
barren  Hijaz,  and  both  Mecca  and  Medina  (which  bore 
its  old  name  Yathrib  till  Muhammad  fled  thither 
for  refuge)  were  great  emporiums  of  commerce.  The 
latter,  as  we  shall  see,  had  long  been  settled  by  a 
powerful  Jewish  population,  the  fortunes  of  which 
acted  mightily  on  the  new  religion  and  the  new  polity 
when  the  time  came,  while  the  former  was  the  chief 
centre  and  shrine  of  the  idolatry  which  Muhammad 
was  to  overthrow. 

Yaman  was  the  garden  of  Arabia,  rich  and  fertile  in 
itself,  though  not  capable  of  supporting  the  large 
population  which  its  flourishing  through  trade  had 
brought  within  its  bounds.  Its  capital  was  Sana ;  and 
much  of  its  prosperity  was  due  to  the  great  dam  of 
Marib,  where  the  fertilising  waters  from  the  mountain- 
torrents  were  stored.  When  therefore  Roman  enter- 
prise had  to  a  large  extent  supplanted  the  old  western 
caravan  trade  by  sea-borne  traflic  up  the  Red  Sea,  and 
when  also  the  great  dam  burst,  and  the  stored  waters 
swept  destroying  over  the  lands  which  they  used  to 
fertilise,  then  in  the  second  century  after  Christ  the 
great  Azdite  branch  of  the  Kalitanic  race  surged  north 
through  the  Hijaz,  and  east  through  Najd,  leaving 
l^ehind,  in  successive  stages,  powerful  clans  of  their 
kindred,  and  founding  on  the  Syrian  and  Persian 
borders  the  kingdoms  of  Ghassan  and  Hira.  The 
Himyarite  kingdom  of  Yaman,  relieved  of  its  surplus 
population,  recovered  its  importance ;  its  annals  count 
kings  of  valour  and  authority,  one  of  whom  is  even 
said  to  have  "  carried  his  conquests  to  the  borders  of 
China,"  while  another  had  his  son  murdered  in  Yathrib, 


YAMAN  29 

was  then  converted  to  Judaism,  and  established  that 
religion  in  Mecca.  In  the  end  of  the  third  century  a 
Christian  king  ruled  over  the  country,  and  in  the 
next,  Christian  churches  were  common ;  but  the  people 
generally  were  partly  Jewish  and  partly  pagan,  and 
the  Christian  element  had  probably  been  introduced 
and  strengthened  from  the  kingdom  of  Abyssinia,  the 
neighbouring  state  across  the  Red  Sea.  In  523  A.D., 
Dhu  Nawas  was  king,  a  bigoted  Jew,  who  massacred 
the  Christians  of  Najran,  so  drawing  upon  him  the 
vengeance  of  Justin  i.,  the  Greek  emperor.  Abraha 
moved  against  him  from  Abyssinia  with  a  great  host, 
and  slew  him;  Christianity  was  officially  established 
in  the  country,  and  a  cathedral  built  at  Sana.  An 
attempt  was  made  to  replace  the  pagan  worship  at 
Mecca  by  Christianity,  and  the  Abyssinian  army 
advanced  against  the  city.  But  the  host  was  over- 
whelmed, and  the  commander  perished;  and  570,  the 
Year  of  the  Elephant,  so-called  from  the  war-elephants 
of  the  army,  was  marked  by  the  triumph  of  paganism 
and  by  the  birth  of  Muhammad,  the  greatest  iconoclast 
the  world  has  seen.  Christian,  and  especially  African, 
rule,  however,  was  hateful  to  the  Himyarites;  the 
aid  of  Persia  was  called  in,  and,  after  some  seventy 
years  of  changeful  fortune,  the  ancient  kingdom  of 
Yaman  became  a  dependency  of  that  empire  (597,  the 
year  when  St.  Columba  introduced  Christianity  into 
the  west  of  Scotland). 

The  other  kingdoms  which  were  founded  to  the 
north  of  Arabia  by  the  wave  of  migration  from  the 
south,  and  which  had  constant  traffic  with  and  in- 
fluence over  the  Hijaz,  were  Hira  and  Ghassan.  The 
former,  Hira,  was  settled  by  an  aggregation  of  tribes. 


30         MUHAMMAD  AND   HIS  POWER 

forced  north  and  cast  by  the  Azdites  from  Yaman, — 
rearing  up  a  strong  kingdom  on  the  ruins  of  the 
Persian  Arsacid  power.  At  first  the  kingdom  was 
divided  between  Khudhaites  and  Azdites,  but  soon  the 
former  hived  off  to  Syria,  and  the  latter  remained  sole 
owners.  Civilisation  came  to  them  chiefly  from  Persia, 
and  they  fell  into  a  state  of  dependent  alliance  on  that 
empire.  The  early  history  of  Hira  mingles  strangely 
with  that  of  Rome,  in  its  wars  with  Zenobia  of  Palmyra, 
after  whose  fall  rose  the  rival  kingdom  of  Ghassan  de- 
pendent on  Rome  (i.e.  Constantinople),  as  Hira  was  on 
Persia.  Christianity  was  introduced  under  Numan  I. 
early  in  the  fifth  century,  and  under  his  fostering 
care  became  the  dominant  religion  of  the  state,  though 
it  is  not  certain  that  the  king  himself  embraced  it. 
Under  his  successors  the  Christians  were  persecuted, 
with  the  result  of  constant  quarrels  with  Constantin- 
ople; but  in  524  A.D.  toleration  was  secured  by  the 
efforts  of  Justin  i.,  whose  Abyssinian  ally  (as  has  been 
told)  overwhelmed  the  kingdom  of  Yaman  about  the 
same  time.  The  power  of  Yaman  had  decayed  in 
Central  Arabia  about  this  time,  and  the  country  fell 
under  the  power  of  Hira,  as  vassal  of  Persia.  Then 
ensued  well-nigh  a  century  of  struggle  with  Ghassan,  the 
ally  of  Constantinople,  with  raids  and  plunder  through- 
out Syria,  till  the  bands  of  Hira,  the  vanguard  of 
the  Persian  hosts,  were  hurled  back  by  Belisarius 
from  the  walls  of  Antioch.  At  length,  in  605  A.D.,  the 
dynasty  was  overthrown  by  the  arms  of  Persia ;  a  few 
years  of  anarchy  and  confusion  followed ;  the  forces  of 
Persia  were  routed  by  an  Arab  confederacy  in  the 
Valley  of  Zu  Kar  in  611  A.D.,  the  very  year  when 
Muhammad  had  assumed  his  prophetic  mission, — and. 


HIRA  AND  GHASSAN  31 

finally,  between  628  and  631  A.D.,  the  Central  and 
Western  tribes  of  Arabia  threw  off  the  alien  yoke  and 
cast  in  their  lot  with  their  kinsmen  under  the  national 
Prophet- King. 

The  kinodom   of  Ghassan  was  founded  under  the 

o 

shadow  of  the  Roman  power  in  the  third  century  by 
an  Azdite  tribe  lono-  settled  near  Mecca.  The  two 
great  Aus  and  Khazraj  clans  broke  off,  struck  back 
southwards  in  the  fourth  century,  and  settled  in 
Yathrib  (Medina),  where  they  deprived  the  Jewish 
settlers  of  power.  Christianity  was  introduced  about 
the  time  of  Constantine,  and  continued  to  be  the  state 
religion;  the  annals  of  the  kingdom  are  made  up  of 
wars,  forays,  and  revolts ;  it  was  shattered  by  Persian 
invasion  in  the  beginning  of  the  seventh  century ;  and 
after  some  years  of  stout  resistance  to  the  armies  of 
Islam,  it  also  fell  before  them,  and  was  absorbed  in  the 
growing  empire. 

Yaman,  Hira,  and  Ghassan,  and  the  nomad  tribes  of 
Central  Arabia, — these  were  the  powers  that  acted 
upon  the  Hijaz  from  without,  but  it  is  not  easy  to 
measure  the  effect  they  produced.  The  religious  power 
of  Mecca  as  the  immemorial  shrine  of  pagan  Arabia, 
the  goal  of  its  pilgrimages,  the  pantheon  of  its  idols, 
was  far  greater;  and  the  strong  Jewish  colony  settled 
at  Medina,  whose  faith  combined  readily  with  the 
Abrahamic  legend  and  myth  of  Mecca,  was  destined 
greatly  to  influence  the  new  religious  empire  which 
Muhammad  was  to  found, — so  much  so  that  Deutsch 
boldly  affirms  that  "  Islam  is  no  more  than  Judaism 
2)lus  belief  in  Jesus  and  in  Muhammad."  Let  us  now 
see  what  was  the  history  of  those  two  city-states. 

The  origin  of  Mecca  is  lost  in  antiquity.     As  fai' 


32         MUHAMMAD  AND   HIS  POWER 

back  as  vvc  have  any  knowledge  it  was  both  great  as  a 
commercial  centre,  and  as  a  holy  place  still  greater, — 
for  to  it  looked  the  devotion  of  all  the  scattered  nations 
of  Arabia.  Herodotus  (iii.  8)  mentions  under  a  Greek 
disguise  the  chief  god  Allah,  and  refers  to  the  worship 
of  the  hosts  of  heaven  and  of  sacred  stones;  while 
Diodorus  Siculus,  four  centuries  later,  speaks  of  a 
"  temple  in  this  country  (the  eastern  coast  of  the  Red 
Sea)  greatly  revered  by  all  the  Arabs."  Mecca,  also 
called  Becca, — as,  in  India,  Bombay  is  with  the  natives 
Mumhai,  means  a  "  meeting-place."  The  earliest  settle- 
ment in  the  country  appears  to  have  been  by  tribes  of 
Ishmaelitish  descent,  together  with  their  kinsmen  the 
Jurhamites.  The  chief  object  of  ambition  from  the 
beginning  was  the  control  of  the  Kaaba,  the  building 
of  which  myth  ascribed  to  Abraham  by  God's  command, 
after  Hagar  and  Ishmael  had  settled  in  the  valley :  the 
holy  well  Zemzem  (the  "  bubbling  spring ")  had  burst 
up  miraculously  to  supply  the  thirsty  child's  need  ; 
and  Hagar's  distract^ed  search  for  water  has  been  from 
time  immemorial  recalled  at  the  annual  sevenfold  race 
between  Safa  and  Marwa.  Authentic  history  begins 
in  the  first  century  B.C.  with  Adnan  the  Jurhamite, 
back  to  whom  Muhammad  traced  his  linea^fe,  but 
beyond  whom  he  declared  there  was  no  certainty.  At 
the  great  upheaval  caused  by  the  Azdite  migration 
from  Yaman,  the  powerful  Khudhaa  confederacy 
ousted  the  Maaddites  (sons  of  Adnan)  from  power, 
though  these  latter  retained  throughout  some  of  the 
chief  offices  of  the  sanctuarj^ ;  and  it  was  then  that  the 
idols  were  placed  in  the  Kaaba.  In  the' fifth  century, 
Qusai,  the  Quraish  chief,  from  whose  lineage  in  the 
fifth  generation  sprang  the  prophet  Muhammad,  headed 


QUSAI'S  POWER  33 

a  revolt  against  the  Khudhaa  power,  and  with  the  aid 
of  kindred  tribes  established  his  own.  He  gathered 
up  into  his  harids  the  reins  of  all  civil  and  religious 
authority,  extended  the  city  limits  by  cutting  down  the 
g-TOve  that  hitherto  had  been  held  sacred  from  human 
dwellings,  and  brought  together  within  its  bounds 
the  scattered  members  of  the  Quraish  tribe.  He  built 
for  the  transformed  and  extended  city  a  town-hall,  the 
centre  of  civil  and  social  life,  with  an  entrance  on  to 
the  Kaaba,  whence  were  sent  forth  the  bannered  hosts 
for  war,  where  maidens  of  full  age  assumed  the  garb  of 
womanhood,  and  where  the  ceremonies  of  marriage  were 
performed.  There,  too,  the  elders  of  the  city  held  high 
counsel,  all  affairs  of  the  public  weal  were  determined, 
and  from  it  set  forth,  and  to  it  returned  the  half-yearly 
caravans  on  which  Mecca  mainly  depended  for  its  wealth. 
To  secure  the  quiet  observance  of  the  rites  of  pil- 
grimage, Arab  tribal  law  had  enforced  peace  during 
four  months  of  the  year,  the  eleventh,  twelfth,  first, 
and  seventh.  During  these,  all  feuds  were  huslied,  and 
the  deadliest  foes  met  in  mutual  security.  But  the 
religious  chief  of  Mecca  had  the  singular  power  of 
substituting  the  second  month  of  the  year  for  the  first 
as  a  month  of  truce,  the  first  then  becoming  common. 
It  may  easily  be  seen  how  great  was  this  power  (called 
Nasa,  commutation),  and  how  it  might  be  abused,  as 
was  the  similar  power  of  the  pontifices  of  Rome  in 
regard  to  their  religious  calendar.  This  power,  to- 
gether with  the  starting  of  the  pilgrims  for  Mount 
Arafat  and  Mina  (Ijaza),  providing  them  with  food 
and  water  (Rifada  and  Siqaya),  the  custody  of  the 
keys  of  the  Kaaba  (Hijaba), — all  was  vested  in  Qusai. 
The  ceremonies  of  the  pilgrimage  were  purely  pagan  : 
3 


34         MUHAMMAD  AND  HIS  POWER 

the  pilgrims  threw  off  all  clothing  to  make  the  mystic 
sevenfold  circuit  of  the  Kaaba,  symbolising  perhaps 
planetary  motion,  though  strangely  (and  contrary  to 
almost  universal  practice  in  other  religious  ceremonies) 
the  circuit  was  made  against  the  course  of  the  sun ; 
they  adored  the  many  idols  placed  in  and  around  the 
Holy  House ;  and  they  rapturously  kissed  the  Black 
Stone,  of  meteoric  origin,  symbol  and  centre  of  the 
old  stone-worship,  one  of  the  most  widespread  forms 
of  ancient  superstition.  The  divinities  most  worshipped 
were  Allah,  the  su])reme  god,  Allat  (perhaps  only  a 
feminine  form  of  the  former),  who  with  Al  Uzza  and 
Manat  (a  sacrificial  stone)  was  fabled  to  be  a  daughter 
of  the  Supreme  Allah ;  Hubal,  the  rain-god,  Wadd  or 
Heaven,  with  others  in  shape  of  lion,  horse,  and  eagle. 
Hosts  more  there  were,  the  whole  number  being  no 
less  than  365  in  Muhammad's  day.  Sacred  stones  are 
scattered  throughout  Arabia,  early  native  historians 
say  that  they  were  carried  from  Mecca  to  represent 
the  Black  Stone,  and  Palgrave  found  in  Central  Arabia 
monoliths  and  stone-circles  which  reminded  him  of 
Stonehenge  and  the-w^emhirs  of  Brittany.  But,  besides 
the  gods,  the  tribes  believed  in  Jinns,  formed  of  fire  as 
mankind  from  clay,  but  otherwise  of  very  similar 
constitution  though  greater  power;  and  their  know- 
ledge of  a  future  life  was  vague  and  dim,  and  not 
general.  It  was  not  uncommon  for  a  camel  to  be 
tied  by  the  grave  of  a  chief,  with  the  idea,  apparently, 
that  in  the  future  life  it  would  serve  to  carry  the  dead 
man,  as  it  had  done  in  the  world  he  had  left.^ 

^  Marco  Polo  in  his  Travels  tells  liow  in  his  clay  it  was  the  custom 
in  Central  Asia  to  slaughter  hosts  of  men  and  women  to  swell  the  state 
of  a  deceased  Tartar  chief. 


DESERT  ARABS  35 

The  varying  feuds  and  fights  and  fortunes  of  the 
tribes  which  dwelt  in  and  roamed  through  Central 
Arabia  need  not  be  particularly  traced.  Powerful  as 
many  of  them  were,  the  curse  of  disunion  was  on 
them  then,  as  it  is  again  now  that  the  national  feeling 
created  by  Islam  has  long  spent  its  force.  Owning  by 
turns  the  supremacy  of  Yaman  or  of  Hira,  some  of 
them  professing  Judaism  oi~-Christianity  for  a  while, 
the  most  part  remained  pagan,  and  when  the  states  on 
their  borders  had  sunk  into  weakness,  they  resumed 
their  old  unfettered  freedom,  till  the  time  came  to 
unite  them  under  the  standard  of  the  new  Faith.  One 
influence,  however,  which  almost  certainly  had  greatly 
contributed  to  enlighten  Muhammad  and  to  shape  his 
beliefs,  came  from  Central  Arabia.  The  state  of  Najran, 
lying  between  Yaman  and  Najd,  and  settled  by  the 
Harith  tribe  (of  Kahlanite  stock),  had  been  Christian- 
ised by  Syrian  missionaries  in  the  fifth  century  or 
earlier,  and  Qas,  one  of  their  bishops  and  a  famous 
orator,  was  heard  by  the  future  Prophet,  when  a  youth, 
at  the  great  yearly  fair  of  Ukaz. 

Medina,  according  to  Arab  tradition,  was  originally 
settled  by  the  Amalekites ;  but  these  gave  way  in  very 
early  times  to  Jewish  invaders,  driven  from  their  own 
land  (probably)  by  the  national  disasters  wrought  by 
Nebuchadnezzar,  and  later  conquerors.  Prominent 
among  them  were  the  Nazir,  Quraiza,  and  Qainuqaa 
tribes,  whom  we  shall  find  again  under  Muhammad's 
rule.  About  300  a.d.  the  Aus  and  Khazraj  tribes,  of 
Azdite  stock,  struck  back  south  from  their  kindred  in 
Ghassan,  and  at  first  lived  on  good  terms  with  the 
Jews  who  had  hospitably  welcomed  them.  But  when 
they  grew  in  numbers  and  felt  their  power,  they,  about 


36         MUHAMMAD  AND  HIS  POWER 

the  end  of  the  fifth  century,  rose  against  their  Jewish 
partners  in  the  government,  massacred  the  chiefs,  seized 
the  best  of  their  lands,  and  reduced  the  tribes  to  sub- 
jection. The  treachery  and  massacre  was  avenged  by 
Abu  Karib,  a  prince  (possibly  from  Yaman),  who  slew 
the  leaders,  and  devastated  the  cultivated  lands,  but 
had  then  to  retire.  Thereafter  followed  twenty  years 
of  strife  between  the  rival  clans ;  a  truce  for  half  a 
century ;  then  renewed  war,  ending  after  a  terrible 
battle  at  Buath  in  616  A.D.  (where  the  strength  of  the 
Jews  was  divided  between  the  contending  tribes,  and 
desert  allies  joined  in  the  fray),  in  the  triumph  of  the 
Khazraj,  whose  chief,  Abdallah  ibn  Ubai,  was  about  to 
be  raised  to  the  kingship  of  Medina,  when  the  Exile 
from  Mecca  changed  the  fortunes  of  the  city,  so  begin- 
ninof  his  oj-reat  secular  career. 

The  foregoing  account  shows  that  when  Muhammad 
appeared  there  was  already  spread  throughout  Arabia 
much  knowledge  of  faiths  purer  than  the  idolatry  of 
Mecca  in  which  he  was  bred.  The  ebb  or  flow  of  Arab 
migration  and  trade  had  kept  up  a  constant  connection 
between  Mecca  and  the  stronghold  of  Jewish  power  in 
Medina  to  the  north  and  Yaman  in  the  south ;  the 
influence  of  Christianity  also  (though  sadly  abused 
and  distorted)  was  pressing  in  from  Abyssinia,  from 
Najran,  from  Hira,  and  from  Ghassan,  with  the  shadow 
of  the  once  mighty  Eastern  Roman  Empire  in  the  back- 
ground ;  and  the  earliest  history  of  Mecca  w^as  strangely 
bound  up  Avith  legends  of  Abraham  and  Ishmael.  But 
none  of  these  had  had  power  to  move  deeply  the  Arab 
soul,  and  where  Judaism  and  Christianity  had  both 
failed,  Muhammad  succeeded  with  a  strange  mixture 
of  both,  compounded  by  the  alchemy  of  his  own  genius. 


/ 


CHAPTER  IV 

Qusai  to  Muliammacl — Abd  al  Muttalib — Eedemption  of  Abd- 
allali — Streiigtli  of  Idolatry  in  Mecca — "Muslims  before 
Islam " — Zaid  the  Sceptic — Birtli  of  Muliammad,  a  Post- 
humous Child— Adoption  by  Abd  al  Muttalib — His  Fosterage 
and  Early  Childhood — Death  of  his  Mother — Legends  of  his 
Infancy — His  Youth — Marriage  to  Khadija. 

Qusli,  as  we  have  seen,  refounded  Mecca,  greatly 
enlarged  its  borders,  gathered  into  it  the  whole  Quraish 
clan,  regulated  the  city  government,  and  gradually 
possessed  himself  of  all  authority  therein.  He  kept 
this  power  as  long  as  he  lived,  and  when  he  died,  full  of 
years  and  honours,  left  his  whole  authority  to  his  eldest 
son,  Abd  al  Dar.  A  younger  brother  Abd  al  Manaf, 
however,  being  of  stronger  character,  enjoyed  the  real 
power,  and  his  four  sons  inherited  their  father's 
authority.  But  the  family  of  Abd  al  Dar  asserted 
themselves,  and  after  much  dispute  the  powers  of 
government  were  divided  between  the  kinsmen : 
Hashim  and  his  brothers,  sons  of  Abd  al  Manaf,  kept 
the  right  of  providing  food  and  drink  to  the  pilgrims, 
and  that  of  leadership  in  war ;  whilst  the  grandsons  of 
Abd  al  Dar  had  the  ke3^s  of  the  Kaaba,  the  presidency 
in  the  town  hall,  and  the  right  of  raising  the  banner. 
Hashim  exercised  his  office  with  princely  liberality, 
and  his  example  was  followed  by  the  other  wealthy 

37 


38         MUHAMMAD  AND   HIS   POWER 

Quraish;  the  splendour  of  the  annual  pilgrimage  was 
enhanced,  and  the  glory  of  Mecca  exalted.  He  also, 
like  an  Arab  Joseph,  saved  his  people  from  starvation 
in  years  of  sore  famine,  and  earned  their  lastino-  o-rati- 
tude.  He  established  a  regular  system  of  caravans, 
two  each  year, — one  in  winter  to  Yaman  and  Abyssinia, 
and  the  other  in  summer  northward  to  Syria ;  and  he 
and  his  brothers  made  advantageous  treaties  with  their 
foreign  neighbours.  His  prosperous  and  honoured  life 
Avas  for  a  time  troubled  by  the  envy  of  his  nephew 
Umaiya,  for  envy  is  the  curse  of  the  Arab  mind,  who 
challenged  his  supremacy,  and  being  adjudged  loser 
retired  in  wrath  to  Egypt,  which  strife  is  marked  by 
historians  as  the  beginning  of  that  Umaiyad  rivalry 
with  the  Hashimites  which  was  in  after  days  to  work 
such  harm  in  Islam. 

In  his  old  age,  Hashim,  on  one  of  his  trading 
journeys,  met  at  Medina  a  noble,  capable  lady  named 
Salma,  who  had  been  divorced  by  her  husband.  He 
loved,  and  married  her,  and  a  great  feast  was  made  to 
her  tribe  of  Kliazraj  and  his  Quraish  relatives.  After 
a  short  stay  with  her  husband  in  Mecca,  Salma  returned 
to  her  father's  house,  where  a  son  was  born  to  her  in 
497  A.D.  Hashim  died  not  long  after  in  Syria,  leaving 
his  dignities  to  his  brother  Al  Muttalib,  who  brought  his 
nephew  to  Mecca  as  soon  as  he  could  leave  his  mother. 
The  lad  was  noble  and  goodly  to  look  upon,  but  the 
Meccans,  fancying  he  was  a  newly-purchased  slave, 
hailed  him  as  Abd  al  Muttalib  ("  slave  of  Al  Muttalib  "), 
by  which  name  he  was  ever  afterwards  known.  Not 
without  strife,  whicli  obliged  him  to  call  in  the  armed 
help  of  his  mother's  kindred,  did  Abd  al  Muttalib  secure 
his  patrimonial  rights ;  and  it  took  years  to  overcome 


ABD  AL  MUTTALIB  39 

the  envy  of  his  relatives.  At  length  he  triumphed, 
and  rose  to  more  than  his  father's  dignity  and  power, 
attaining  almost  to  the  supremacy  enjoyed  by  Qusai ; 
for  he  rediscovered  and  dug  again,  after  centuries  of 
disuse,  the  holy  well  Zemzem,  whose  abundant  waters 
have  ever  since  mainly  supplied  the  city  of  Mecca,  and 
the  myriads  of  pilgrims  that  crowd  to  her  sacred 
shrines.  The  god  Hubal  declared  by  the  arrows  of 
divination  that  Abd  al  Muttalib  alone  should  own  and 
control  the  well  and  the  golden  treasures  found  buried 
therein,  and  the  grateful  chief  spent  the  gold  in  adorn- 
ing and  enriching  the  Holy  House. 

An  interesting  legend  of  sacrifice  averted  marks 
the  story.  In  the  struggles  of  his  manhood  Abd  al 
Mutallib  was  at  a  disadvantage  from  havino^  but  one 
son,  who  aided  him  in  his  quest  for  the  famous  well. 
So  he  vowed  to  his  god  Hubal  that,  if  he  should 
be  blessed  with  ten  sons,  he  would  sacrifice  one  of 
them  to  the  deity.  The  ten  sons  were  given  him,  and 
six  daughters,  and,  when  the  sons  were  all  grown  up 
to  manhood,  the  father  cast  lots  before  the  oracle 
to  choose  out  the  victim.  Abdallah,  sixth  and  best 
beloved,  was  taken;  but  God  had  ordered  otherwise. 
Again,  it  is  said  at  the  instance  of  one  of  his  daughters, 
the  father  cast  the  lot,  to  see  if  the  god  would  take  a 
ransom  of  ten  camels  for  tl^e  lad;  but  the  human 
victim  was  still  claimed.  Similarly,  twenty  camels 
were  offered,  and  rejected;  then  thirty,  and  forty;  nor 
was  it  till  one  hundred  had  been  staked  that  the  lot 
set  Abdallah  free.  The  camels  of  the  ransom  were 
sacrificed,  and  their  flesh  divided  to  the  people,  save 
that  Hashim's  brothers  would  not  partake  of  it,  and 
the   father   of   Muhammad   was    redeemed.     Abd    al 


40         MUHAMMAD  AND   HIS  POWER 

Muttalib,  like  Hashim  his  uncle,  was  attacked  by 
his  envious  kinsman  Harb  son  of  Umayya,  and, 
like  Hashim,  was  declared  victor  in  the  contest.  He 
strengthened  his  power  by  an  alliance  with  the  Khudh- 
aites  of  Mecca,  the  treaty  being  solemnly  laid  up  in 
the  Kaaba;  and  his  fame  was  raised  to  its  height 
when,  in  570,  eight  years  before  his  death,  the  mighty 
Abyssinian  host  under  Abraha,  advancing  to  destroy 
the  Kaaba,  perished  under  a  mysterious  pestilence 
before  the  gates  of  the  city,  with  a  destruction  so  com- 
plete that  but  one  escaped  to  tell  the  woeful  tidings, 
and  he  fell  dead  before  his  master's  throne  as  soon 
as  the  story  was  told  !  Now,  some  months  ere  this, 
Abdallah,  like  his  uncle  Hashim,  had  wedded  a  lady 
of  Medina,  Amina,  daugliter  of  Wahbra,  who  was  de- 
scended from  Zuhra,  brother  of  the  great  Qusai.  His 
aged  father,  with  whom  he  was  travelling,  married  at 
the  same  time  Amina's  cousin,  Halah,  by  whom  he 
became  the  father  of  Hamza,  the  "  Lion "  of  Islam. 
Abdallah  died  at  Medina  on  his  way  liome  from  Syria, 
at  the  early  age  of  twenty-five,  and  some  months  later 
Amina  was  comforted  over  his  death  by  the  birth  of 
her  son  Muhammad,  the  mightiest  Arab  of  all  times. 

It  is  clear  that  when  Muhammad  was  born  in  570, 
there  was  no  decline  of  paganism  or  idol-worship  at 
Mecca.  There  was  no  sense  of  unreality,  such  as  at  Rome 
made  Cicero  wonder  that  two  auo-urs  could  meet  with 
grave  faces,  and  which  breathes  in  the  poetry  of 
Horace  and  Ovid,  scarcely  less  than  in  Lucretius.  The 
greatness  of  Mecca  was  bound  up  with  the  devotion  to 
the  Kaaba;  at  no  time  had  the  temple  been  more 
famous,  the  yearly  pilgrimages  more  widely  popular ; 
and  the  fame  of  Quraish  princes,  Qusai,  Hashim,  Abd 


"MUSLIMS  BEFORE   ISLAM"  41 

al  Muttalib,  and  the  rest,  was  based  on  their  service  to 
the  Holy  House.  There  was  no  breaking  up  of  Mecca's 
paganism,  to  render  the  work  of  revolution  easy. 
Seekers  after  God  and  a  purer  faith  there  had  been, 
more  numerous  perhaps,  certainly  to  us  better  known, 
about  this  time  than  in  former  generations.  Of  these 
four  men  are  specially  marked  out,  and  Sprenger  exalts 
their  quest  after  truth  at  Muhammad's  expense;  but 
probably  no  great  revolution  in  human  affairs,  whether 
in  the  domain  of  thought  or  of  action,  has  been  effected 
without  some  previous  strivings  that  have  come  to 
nothing,  and  it  is  the  leader  whose  work  is  carried  to 
success,  the  man  who  toils  and  labours  till  he  reaches 
the  goal,  to  whom  is  justly  due  the  crown  of  a  nation's 
or  a  world's  praise.  That  Muhammad  OAved  something 
to  the  teaching,  to  the  example,  or  to  the  encourage- 
ment of  the  four  may  be  admitted,  but  it  is  easy  to 
exaggerate  the  debt.  It  is,  however,  a  very  interesting 
story  that  of  these  "Muslims  before  Islam,"  derived 
from  early  Muhammadan  history,  and  runs  somewhat 
as  follows : — 

On  a  certain  day,  when  the  men  of  Quraish  were 
gathered  at  a  yearly  feast  to  one  of  their  idols,  slew 
sacrifices,  and  went  about  the  Sacred  House,  four  men 
kept  apart,  and  agreed  to  open  their  hearts  to  one 
another.  They  were  Waraqa,  cousin  of  Muhammad's 
first  wife  Khadija ;  Ubaid  Ullah,  son  of  Muhammad's 
paternal  aunt;  Uthman,  son  of  Al  Hawairik;  and 
Zaid,  of  the  Adi  family.  And  one  of  them  said  to 
the  others  :  "  By  God,  ye  see  that  our  tribe  knows  not 
the  true  religion.  They  have  corrupted  the  faith  of 
Abraham,  and  worship  a  stone,  which  neither  hears  nor 
sees,  and  can  do  neither  good  nor  harm.     Friends,  seek 


42         MUHAMMAD  AND   HIS   POWER 

for  yourselves,  for  ye  are  not  in  the  right  path."  So 
they  went  forth  each  his  several  way,  to  seek  for  the 
true  faith  of  Abraham, — which  faith  Muhammad  in 
after  time  professed  to  restore.  Waraqa  studied  the 
Christian  scriptures,  was  penetrated  by  their  truth,  and 
embraced  Christianity :  he  was  a  learned  man,  and 
copied  out  a  large  part  of  the  Gospels.  Ubaid  Ullah  re- 
mained a  sceptic  till  he  accepted  Islam  at  Muhammad's 
preaching  in  Mecca.  He  married  Umm  Habiba,  a 
daughter  of  Abu  Sufiyan,  also  a  convert,  with  whom 
he  went  to  Abyssinia  with  the  first  exile.  There  he 
became  a  Christian,  and  would  tell  his  fellow-exiles 
that  he  had  found  the  truth,  after  which  they  were 
still  groping.  He  died  ere  he  could  return,  and  his 
widow  afterwards  became  one  of  Muhammad's  wives. 
Uthman  went  to  Constantinople,  where  he  also  pro- 
fessed Christianity,  and  was  highly  honoured  by  the 
Emperor.  Thus  of  the  four  seekers  after  God  three 
found  Him  in  Clirist. 

The  fourth,  Zaid,  remained  a  sceptic  to  the  end, 
finding  no  faith  to  satisfy  him.  Renouncing  his 
ancestral  beliefs,  he  forsook  the  worship  of  idols, 
refused  to  eat  what  had  been  sacrificed  to  them,  or 
blood,  or  that  which  died  of  itself,  and  he  condemned 
the  cruel  custom  of  bur37ing  girls  alive.  In  extreme 
old  age  he  warned  the  Quraish  that  he  only  among 
them  held  the  true  faith  of  Abraham,  and  he  prayed, 
saying :  "  O  Lord,  if  I  knew  in  what  form  Thou 
wouldest  be  worshipped,  so  would  I  worship  Thee  ; 
but  I  know  it  not."  And  again  he  said  that  he  had 
cast  away  his  idols,  and  the  idols  of  his  tribe,  to 
worship  the  All-Merciful  Lord,  that  He  might  forgive 
his   sins.     "Whoso   fears  God  will  not  be  lost.     The 


ZAID   THE   SCEPTIC  43 

good  shall  have  their  abode  in  the  gardens  of  paradise, 
but  the  wicked  shall  dwell  with  the  fire.  In  life  they 
shall  not  prosper,  and  after  death  they  shall  be  in 
torment."  "  Truly  I  am  Thy  servant,  O  Lord ;  and  to 
Thee  I  submit  mj^self,  Whom  the  earth  obeys,  and  the 
fertilising  rain-clouds."  Zaid  was  for  long  prevented 
by  his  cousin  Khattab  from  wandering  forth  in  search 
of  the  truth,  but  succeeded  at  length.  He  wandered 
through  Mesopotamia  and  Syria,  questioning  monks 
and  Rabbins  concerning  the  faith  of  Abraham;  but 
none  could  tell  him  of  it,  save  one  who  bade  him  go 
back^o  his  own  land,  "  for  there  (said  he)  has  arisen  a 
Prophet  who  will  restore  that  ancient  faith."  So  he 
turned  his  steps  homeward,  but  was  murdered  on  the 
way ; — and  in  later  times  Muhammad  refused  not  to 
pray  for  Zaid,  though  at  another  time  he  told  his 
followers  that  he  was  commanded  not  to  pray  for  any 
but  Believers,  and  was  expressly  forbidden  to  pray  for 
his  own  mother. 

Reference  has  been  already  made  to  the  wondrous 
tales  told  in  later  times  by  the  devotion  of  his  followers, 
to  enhance  the  glory  of  Muhammad :  but  the  simple 
facts  do  not  need  any  embellishment  to  heighten  our 
admiration  for  the  mighty  work  he  did,  whatever 
judgment  we  may  have  to  pass  on  the  character  and 
motives  of  the  man,  or  on  the  nature  of  the  revolution 
he  achieved.  The  tribe  to  which  he  belonged,  the 
Quraish,  had,  in  the  two  centuries  before  his  birth, 
raised  itself  to  undisputed  pre-eminence  in  Mecca.  All 
power,  civil,  religious,  and  military,  so  far  as  the 
nature  of  Arab  life  permitted,  was  gathered  in  their 
hands.  They  had,  by  the  exercise  of  those  virtues 
which  were  most  highly  esteemed  in  Arabia,  won  the 


44         MUHAMMAD  AND   HIS  POWER 

widest  fame ;  they  had  strong  family  ties  and  alliance 
both  with  the  other  cliief  city  of  the  Hijaz,  Medina 
(Yathrib),  and  with  the  Bedouin  tribes  of  Central 
Arabia ;  their  commerce  was  regular,  gainful,  and  far- 
reaching  ;  and  they  had  treaties  of  friendship  with 
powers  beyond  the  limits  of  the  peninsula.  Abd  al 
Muttalib,  the  venerable  chief  of  the  Quraish,  surrounded 
by  his  large  family  of  sons  and  daughters,  and  held  in 
high  honour  for  his  past  services,  ruled  in  Mecca.  The 
Abyssinian  invasion  had  failed  in  circumstances  which 
lent  colour  to  the  belief  in  supernatural  aid,  and  the 
central  shrine  of  Arabian  idolatry  was  secure  against 
foreign  foes. 

The  chief  and  his  well-beloved  son  Abdallah  had,  as 
has  been  told,  married  at  the  same  time,  in  the  end  of 
the  year  569,  two  cousins,  of  a  noble  house  in  Medina, 
not  distantly  related  to  themselves.  To  the  aged  Abd 
al  Muttalib  was  born  Hamza,  a£.terwards  so  famous  in 
Islilm,  and  to  the  newly-widowed  Amina  (August  20, 
570  A.D.)  was  given  the  child  Muhammad.  Still,  after 
all  these  thirteen  centuries,  the  pious  pilgrim  gazes 
reverently  on  his  birthplace  in  the  ShVh  Maiilud,  the 
"  Quarter  of  the  Nativity,"  not  half  a  mile  from  the 
Kaaba.  After  her  marriage  with  Abdallah,  Amina 
had  gone  to  her  husband's  city,  while  he  had  gone 
northward  with  the  Syrian  caravan.  On  his  return 
he  sickened  and  died  at  Medina,  leaving  to  his  widow 
and  unborn  son  five  camels,  a  flock  of  goats,  and  a 
female  slave,  Umm  Aiman  or  Baraka,  who  tended  the 
infant  when  born.  The  little  property  was  not  small 
for  an  Arab  in  that  age,  and  in  no  case  would  Abd  al 
Muttalib's  grandson  have  been  allowed  to  want  for 
anything  which  Mecca  could  furnish. 


CHILDHOOD  AND   FOSTERAGE         45 

Immediately  word  had  come  of  the  child's  birth,  the 
glad  grandfather  carried  him  in  his  arms  to  the  Holy 
House,  gave  thanks  to  God,  and  named  him  Muhammad, 
"the  Praised."  This  and  the  other  common  name 
Ahmad,  which  has  the  same  meaning,  are  both  derived 
from  the  Arabic  root  hamada,  "to  praise";  and  in  his 
later  years  Muhammad,  from  these  names,  supported  his 
claim  to  be  the  "  prophet "  foretold  by  our  Lord  Himself 
in  the  Gospels, — periklytos  (famous  or  renowned)  in- 
stead oiparaldetos,  the  Advocate  or  Comforter.^ 

As  was  usual  in  Mecca,  Muhammad  was  not  nursed 
by  his  own  mother,  but  given  over  to  a  slave  woman 
of  his  uncle  Abu  Lahb,  who  had  lately  nursed  Hamza. 
Though  he  was  not  long  in  her  care,  Muhammad  ever 
after  showed  the  utmost  love  and  gratitude  towards 
her,  honouring  and  helping  her  while  she  lived,  and 
her  daughter  (his  foster-sister)  after,  till  she  also  died, 
not  many  years  before  his  own  death. 

Mecca,  however,  has  always  been  unhealthy  for 
children,  and  it  was  the  general  custom  of  the  wealthy 
Arabs  to  send  them  away  with  foster-mothers  to  be 
reared  in  the  free,  pure  air  of  the  desert,  amid  the 
black  tents,  the  horses,  and  the  camels,  which  are  the 
immemorial  theme  of  Arab  song,  and  where  also  the 
noble  Arabic  tongue  has  ever  flourished  in  stainless 
vigour.  So,  in  the  autumn  after  his  birth,  Muhammad 
was  given  to  Halima,  a  woman  of  the  Bani  Saad,  who 
had  come  with  others  to  receive  the  care  of  Meccan 
infants.  She  did  not  take  him  without  reluctance,  as 
the  care  of  a  fatherless  child  was  less  likely  to  be  well 
rewarded  than  that  of  one  whose  parents  were  both 
living.  She  proved,  however,  most  faithful  to  her  trust, 
the  infant  was  carefully  and  lovingly  tended,  and  had 


46         MUHAMMAD   AND   HIS   POWER 

grown  to  healthy,  vigorous  childhood  when,  at  the 
end  of  five  years,  he  was  finally  returned  to  his  mother's 
charge.  Tradition  delights  to  tell  how  Hallma  and 
her  whole  house  were  flivoured  by  hea\'en  while  the 
young  Prophet  dwelt  with  her.  The  donkey  she^  rode, 
lean  and  almost  foundered  when  she  came  into  Mecca, 
recovered  speed  and  condition  on  her  homeward  way  ; 
it  had  been  a  season  of  drought,  and  the  flocks  and 
herds  of  the  tribe  were  lean  and  athirst,  but  on  Hallma's 
return  the  pastures  flourished,  and  the  cattle  throve  ; 
and  she  and  hers  prospered  even  beyond  their  fellows. 
The  child  grew  up  strong  and  healthy,  generally  speak- 
ing, and  his  great  physical  strength  and  endurance  in 
after  life  prove  the  soundness  of  his  constitution.  Yet 
he  suffered  from  some  mysterious  ailment,  and  was 
subject  to  occasional  fits.  These  in  all  Eastern  lands 
have  ever  been  looked  upon  as  cases  of  possession,  and 
in  Arabia  the  sufferer  is  believed  to  be  possessed  by 
a  Jinn,  one  of  those  spirits  formed  of  fire  with  which 
Bedouin  fancy  has  peopled  the  waste  places  of  the 
earth, — and  to  whom  belong — 

"  Those  airy  tongues  wliicli  syllable  men's  names  ^ 
In  rocks,  in  i)lains,  in  barren  wilderness." 

It  was,  and  still  is,  usual  not  to  wean  Arab  children 
for  the  long  period  of  two  years,  and  at  the  end  of  that 
time,  Hallma  seems  to  have  taken  her  foster-child  to 
his  mother,  and  to  have  brought  him  back  to  the  tents 
for  a  like  period  more.  At  the  end  of  the  fourth  year, 
however,  both  Halima  and  lier  husband  were  alarmed 
by  a  fit  which  took  the  child ;  so  they  carried   him 

^  Again  Marco  Polo  witnesses  for  us  to  the  many  spirits  that  in  his 
time  haunted  the  deserts  of  High  Tartary  (Yule's  Marco  Polo). 


"CLEAVING  OF  THE  BREAST"    47 

back  to  Mecca,  intending  to  rid  themselves  of  the 
charge  altogether.  But  they  were  induced  to  resume 
it  for  another  year,  after  which  the  boy  Muhammad 
finally  returned  to  his  grandfather's  house. 

The  occasion  of  Muhammad's  first  fit  has  been  trans- 
muted by  the  devout  fancy  of  his  followers  into  a 
miraculous  cleansing  of  his  heart  from  the  stain  of  sin. 
It  is  related  that  he  said  to  his  anxious  foster-mother 
that  two  men  in  shining  raiment  had  thrown  him  to 
the  ground,  opened  his  breast,  and  taken  out  the  heart 
and  chief  organs,  yet  without  any  pain;  the  organs 
wer€  then  washed  in  pure  water,  and  from  the  heart 
was  taken  the  black  seed  of  sin,  and  then  all  was 
replaced.  Such  is  the  material  form  given  to  the 
allegory  used  by  Muhammad  in  Sura  94  of  the  Quran, 
— "  Have  we  not  opened  thy  breast  ?  "  In  this,  again, 
we  see  an  Arabic  version  of  the  Psalmist's  prayer, — 
"  Create  in  me  a  clean  heart,  O  Lord ! " 

The  speech  of  the  Sons  of  Saad  was  famous  for  its 
purity,  and  in  later  times  Muhammad  boasted  that  he 
was  the  "  most  perfect  Arab,  sprung  from  the  tribe  of 
Quraish,  and  speaking  the  tongue  of  the  Bani  Saad." 
His  afiectionate  nature  ever  acknowledged  the  ties  of 
fosterage,  and  when  in  a  year  of  drought  Halima 
visited  him  in  Mecca  after  his  marriage  to  the  wealthy 
Khadija,  he  presented  her  to  his  wife,  and  that  generous 
lady  sent  her  away  happy  with  the  gift  of  a  noble 
riding  camel  and  a  flock  of  forty  sheep.  Many  years 
later,  her  daughter  came  to  him  in  Medina,  and  was 
treated  with  the  greatest  honour  and  affection  ;  and 
when  her  tribe  had  lost  many  captives  to  him  in  an 
expedition  against  Ta,if,  they  redeemed  themselves  by 
reminding  him  of   his  childhood's  days  among  them. 


48         MUHAMMAD  AND  HIS  POWER 

Over  and  over  again  in  the  story  of  Muhammad's  life 
we  shall  find  how  tender  was  his  nature,  how  quick  his 
affections,  and  shall  wonder  the  more  at  the  few  dark 
passages  where  he  showed  himself  without  ruth  or  pity. 
The  year  after  his  return  to  Mecca,  Muhammad  spent 
under  his  mother's  care,  and  at  the  end  of  that  time  she 
desired  to  show  him  to  his  kinsfolk  in  Medina.  So 
she  set  forth  with  the  boy  and  his  nurse  Umm  Aiinan, 
and  stayed  in  the  city  for  a  month,  in  the  house  where 
her  husband  had  died.  That  month  Muhammad  never 
forgot,  and  not  many  years  before  his  own  death  he 
told  his  companions  the  names  of  his  playmates  at  that 
time,  and  the  games  at  which  they  played.  The  memory 
of  those  days  Avas  ever  sweet  to  him,  deepened  by  the 
tragedy  that  so  soon  followed  ;  for,  on  their  homeward 
way  to  Mecca,  sickness  fell  on  Amina,  and  she  died  at 
Abwa  when  but  half  their  journey  was  done,  and  there 
she  was  buried ;  and  the  faithful  Umm  Aiman  took  the 
little  orphan  home,  where  the  aged  chief  of  Mecca 
welcomed  him.  The  loss  of  his  mother,  the  only  parent 
he  had  known,  was  a  deep  grief  to  the  sensitive  child's 
heart,  and  his  love  and  reverence  for  her  never  wore  out. 
More  than  fifty  years  later  he  turned  aside  to  her  grave, 
as  he  went  on  his  pilgrimage  to  Hudaibiya,  and  he  wept 
over  it ;  and  his  companions  wept  with  him,  and  asked 
the  cause  of  his  tears.  And  he  said  he  wept  for  tender 
memory  of  his  mother,  and  because  the  Lord  had  for- 
bidden him  to  pray  for  her,  inasmuch  as  she  had  died  in 
unbelief.  It  is  a  scene  full  of  pathos,  the  old  man 
weeping  for  tlie  mother  he  had  loved  and  lost  in  early 
childhood,  and  shutting  her  out  from  what  he  thought 
the  grace  of  his  intercession  because  she  had  not  believed 
in  his  prophetic  mission. 


BOYHOOD  AND  YOUTH  49 

So  long  as  Abel  al  Muttalib  lived,  the  boy  was 
tenderly  cared  for.  The  old  chief  delighted  in  the 
child's  company,  shielded  him  from  all  annoyance,  and 
treated  him  as  the  son  of  his  old  age.  But  two  years 
later  he  also  died,  leaving  his  orphan  grandson  to  tlie 
guardianship  of  Abu  Talib,  a  worthy  successor,  to  whose 
firm  and  unwavering  support  through  many  stormy 
years  Muhammad  owed  his  very  life,  threatened  as  it 
was  by  the  hatred  of  most  of  the  Quraish,  when  he  had 
broken  with  idolatry  and  claimed  to  be  the  Prophet  of 
Allah.  ■  The  fresh  bereavement  was  a  heavy  blow  to 
Muhammad,  but  doubtless  there  mingled  with  his  grief 
a  proud  memory  of  his  grandfather's  high  character  and 
great  fame,  which  might  well  stir  him  to  dreams  of  ambi- 
tion. For  the  time,  however,  the  fortunes  of  the  family 
suffered  eclipse.  Several  of  Abd  al  Muttalib's  sons  were 
dead,  his  splendid  hospitality  had  greatly  diminished 
his  wealth,  and  the  riches  and  power  of  the  clan  had  in 
large  part  passed  to  the  descendants  of  Abd  al  Manaf. 

Of  the  life  of  Muhammad  for  many  years  after  this, 
till  the  date  of  his  marriage,  at  the  age  of  twenty-five, 
with  Khadija,  scarcely  anything  is  certainly  known.  He 
grew  up  under  the  care  and  protection  of  his  uncle  Abu 
Talib,  surrounded  by  the  atmosphere  of  the  best  Arab 
life,  and  steeped  (we  may  not  doubt)  in  the  family  wor- 
ship of  idols,  with  which  their  rank  and  importance  had 
been  from  the  days  of  Qusai  so  closely  bound  up. 
Late  traditions,  manifestly  without  any  foundation  in 
fact,  have  adorned  (or  defaced)  a  childhood  and  youth 
that  were  no  doubt  happy  and  uneventful  with  legend- 
ary foreshadowings  of  his  future  greatness,  prophecies 
Jewish  and  Christian,  by  learned  Rabbis  and  pious  her- 
mits, of  the  prophet  that  was  to  come  last  into  the  world, 
4 


50        MUHAMMAD  AND   HIS  POWER 

to  perfect  and  seal  the  revelation  of  God's  will  and  pur- 
poses to  mankind.  Trees  bowed  in  homage,clouds  shaded 
him  miraculously  as  he  journeyed  with  the  caravans,  and 
stones  cried  out  in  thankfulness  and  praise  as  he  passed. 
In  the  legendary  history  of  his  childhood,  by  an  ob- 
vious afterthought,  Muhammad  from  his  earliest  years 
is  shown  constantly  and  strongl}^  protesting  against 
every  form  of  idolatry,  and  this  we  may  be  sure  is 
wdiolly  untrue.  He  no  doubt  went  with  his  uncles, 
sometimes  with  one,  and  sometimes  with  another,  on  the 
half-yearly  trading  expeditions  (though  tradition  re- 
cords only  two  such  journeys),  and  his  strong,  observant, 
meditative  mind  would  be  fed  from  all  springs  of  know- 
ledge that  came  in  his  way.  He  would  learn  some- 
thing of  the  true  doctrines  of  both  Judaism  and  Chris- 
tianity, and  the  Quran  shows  clearly  that  at  some  time 
or  other  of  his  life  he  gained  a  wide  knowledge  of  the 
extravagance  of  Talmudic  legend,  and  much  also  of 
apocryphal  Christian  fable.  His  family  connection 
with  Medina  also,  and  the  constant  passage  through  it 
when  he  went  with  the  Syrian  caravan,  would  give  him 
special  opportunities  of  learning  from  the  Jews,  and  of 
observing  the  political  and  religious  rivalries  which  he 
afterwards  so  skilfully  turned  to  account.  Certainly 
too  he  was  present  at  the  annual  fairs  held  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Mecca,  of  wdiich  the  chief  was  at 
Uqaz,  where  the  poets  and  orators  strove  for  the  praise 
of  an  audience  not  less  critical  than  those  which  decreed 
the  prizes  in  Athens  at  the  Great  Dionysia.  There  his 
fancy  was  fed  with  the  strange  Arab  tales,  and  his  heart 
fired  with  the  praise  of  valour,  endurance,  and  high 
purpose,  and  his  ear  grew  familiar  with  the  strongest 
and  most  subtle  harmonies  of  the  noble  Arab  tongue. 


EARLY  MANHOOD  51 

with  which  he  was  to  witch  his  world.  Yet  he  himself 
was  no  poet,  at  least  so  far  as  metrical  composition  is 
concerned,  and  was  strong  in  condcmnatiou  of  poets  and 
poetry,  though  he  was  always  fully  alive  to  their  great 
power  over  the  Arab  mind,  and  was  too  wise  not  to  make 
use  of  their  services  when  he  could.  At  Uqaz  too  he 
heard  the  fervent  Christian  preaching  of  Qas,  the  bishop 
of  Najran,  and  might  well  have  embraced  the  Christian 
faith  but  for  two  causes — his  stubborn  family  pride,  and  / 
the  corruptions  of  that  faith  which  he  saw  on  every  side 
of  him.  Had  he  embraced  Christianity,  the  world  would 
have  had  one  religion  less,  and  the  calendar  of  saints 
mio'ht  have  held  one  name  more  !  ^ 

In  truth  very  little  that  is  certain  is  recorded  of 
Muhammad  previous  to  his  marriage  with  Khadija. 
He  enjoyed  a  high  character  among  the  citizens,  and 
nothing  stands  against  his  name.  As  a  youth  he  tended 
the  flocks,  an  occupation  which  was  congenial  to  his 
mild  and  reflective  character ;  and  he  appealed  to  the 
fact  that  (as  he  alleged)  no  prophet  had  been  sent  who 
had  not  been  a  shepherd  or  a  herdsman.  This  was  true, 
no  doubt,  of  Moses  and  of  David,  but  not  of  the  o-reater 
number  of  his  forerunners,  as  he  called  them.  Sprenger 
draws,  from  the  fact  of  his  employment  as  a  shepherd, 
conclusions  unduly  harsh  as  to  his  lack  of  energy  and 
force  of  character.  Against  this  must  be  set  the  fact 
that  he  was  one  of  the  leading  spirits  in  the  Hilf-id- 
Fiizill,  a  confederation  bound  together  by  oath  (Hilf )  to 
right  the  wrongs  of  any,. bond  or  free,  who  might  be 
injured  while  in  Meccan  territory.  The  league  was 
formed  among  the  descendants  of  Hashim  and  Muttalib, 
with  some  allied  families,  and  exercised  a  strong  moder- 
1  This  thou^bt  is  Sir  W.  Muir's. 


5  2         MUHAMMAD  AND   HIS  POWER 

ating  influence.  When  he  was  about  twenty-five 
years  of  age,  Abu  Talib  arranged  that  his  nephew  and 
ward,  who  must  have  been  favourably  known  for 
honesty  and  skill  in  trading,  should  take  charge  in  a 
caravan  going  to  Syria  of  the  goods  of  the  wealthy 
Kliadija,  a  lady  related  to  them.  She  gladly  agreed  to 
give  her  young  kinsman  four  camels  as  his  hire,  double 
what  she  gave  to  others ;  he  conducted  the  venture  with 
prudence  and  success,  and  on  his  return  Kliadija,  de- 
lighted with  the  further  knowledge  she  gained  of  his 
character,  no  less  than  with  his  winning  presence  and 
comely  person,  made  advances  that  ended  in  their 
marriage, — a  happy  union  indeed  for  Muhammad,  who 
lived  with  her  in  perfect  and  undivided  love  till  she 
died  twenty-five  years  later,  in  620  A.D.  She  had 
been  already  twice  married,  and  had  borne  two  sons 
and  a  daughter  to  her  husbands.  At  the  time  of  her 
marriage  to  Muhammad  she  was  forty  (lunar)  years  old, 
as  we  should  say,  thirty-six,  and  to  him  also  she  bore 
two  sons  and  four  daughters.  Both  the  sons  died  in 
early  childhood,  but  the  daughters  all  grew  up  to 
womanhood,  though  only  one  of  them — Fatima — sur- 
vived her  father,  being  the  wife  of  Ali,  his  cousin  and 
faithful  follower,  afterwards  third  Khalifa,  from  whom 
all  the  numerous  Sharlfs  and  Sayyids  trace  their 
descent.  Curiously  enough,  it  seems  that  Khadija  could 
not  marry  without  the  consent  of  her  father,  who  was 
averse  to  the  match.  So  she  plied  him  with  wine  till 
he  yielded,  and  when  he  awoke  to  find  the  marriage  ac- 
complished, he  was  too  w4se  to  interfere  further.  Con- 
sidering how  much  he  thus  owed  to  the  fruit  of  the 
vine,  one  might  think  Muhammad's  stern  laws  against 
it  savoured  of  ingratitude  ! 


KHADIJA  5  3 

The  marriage  with  Khadija  gave  Muhammad  that 
ease  of  circumstances  which  he  needed,  freedom  from 
the  cares  of  daily  life,  the  stay  and  comfort  of  deep 
mutual  love,  which  for  twenty-five  years  never  failed 
him.  His  wife  retained  the  management  of  her  wealth 
in  her  own  capable  hands,  so  that  his  mind  w^as  not 
burdened  with  the  care  of  it ;  whatever  he  needed  was 
liberally  supplied.  He  was  able,  by  adopting  his  young 
cousin  All,  to  discharge  a  part  of  the  debt  he  owed  to 
Abu  Talib,  who  had  now  fallen  into  straitened  cir- 
cumstances ;  and  it  w^as  Khadija  who  bought  and 
presented  to  him  Zaid,  whom  he  set  free  and  adopted 
as  his  son,  and  who  was  one  of  the  first,  boldest,  and 
most  loyal  of  his  followers.  In  spite  of  the  great 
difference  in  age,  Muhammad's  love  for  Khadija  never 
wavered  ;  when  she  was  removed  by  death,  after  sharing 
with  him  for  years  the  trials  and  the  reproach  of  the 
early  times  of  his  preaching,  he  mourned  her  deeply ; 
and,  in  later  days,  his  favourite  wife,  the  sprightly, 
clever,  winsome  Ayesha,  said  she  had  never  been  so 
jealous  of  any  woman  as  "  that  old,  withered,  toothless  " 
Khadija.  But  when  she  petulantly  asked  if  she  had 
been  the  only  woman  worthy  of  his  love,  Muhammad 
answered  gravely  and  tenderly :  "  She  believed  in  me 
when  none  else  did,  she  comforted  me  when  sad  and 
downhearted,  and  she  alone  of  my  wives  bore  me 
children  "  ;  and  on  another  occasion  he  said,  "  The  best 
of  women  in  Paradise  are  Mary  the  daughter  of  Imran 
(the  Virgin  Mary)  and  Khadija  the  daughter  of 
Khawailid." 


CHAPTEE    V 

Muhammad's  Public  and  Private  Life — His  Character — Early 
Strivings  after  Truth — First  Revelations — The  "Cessation 
of  Visions" — Muhammad's  Early  Preaching — Beginnings  of 
Success — Ali,  Zaid,  Abu  Bakr  converted — Blind  Man — 
Temptation  hy  Quraish  rejected. 

For  ten  years  Muhammad's  life  flowed  on  outwardly 
in  happy  obscurity.  If  liis  heart  was  disquieted  over 
the  idolatry  of  his  people,  he  felt  no  call  to  witness 
against  it,  and  at  the  end  of  that  time  lie  took  a  chief 
part  in  rebuilding  its  central  fane.  The  Kaaba  was 
threatened  with  destruction  by  a  flood,  and  the 
alarmed  Quraish  resolved  to  rebuild  it.  The  work 
was  divided  amono^  the  leadincr  families,  and  went  on 
in  harmony  till  the  holy  Black  Stone  was  to  be  put  in 
its  place.  Then  strife  broke  out  among  the  chiefs,  each 
claiming  for  himself  the  high  honour  of  putting  the 
Stone  in  position.  But  as  they  sat  debating  the  point, 
it  was  determined  to  accept  the  decision  of  the  first 
who  should  enter  the  temple  precincts.  This  was 
Muhammad,  hailed  as  "Al  Amin,"  the  Trusty,  who 
directed  that  four  of  the  chief  men  should  hold  the 
corners  of  a  slieet,  and  so  lift  the  Stone  to  the  level 
where  it  was  to  be  built  into  the  wall,  and  then  he 
guided  it  to  its  resting-place,  and  the  dispute  was 
happily  ended. 


FIRST  RELIGIOUS  DOUBTS  55 

But  now  the  time  was  coming  when  he  was  to  break 
finally  with  the  idolatry  in  which  he  had  been  brought 
up,  and  with  which  was  bound  up  so  much  of  the 
greatness  of  his  family  and  his  tribe.  Much  given  to 
solitary  musings,  a  habit  which  was  fed  and  fostered 
by  his  years  of  shepherd  life,  he  was  wont  to  pass  long 
periods  in  retirement  among  the  hills  and  ravines  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Mecca.  Of  these  one  in  particular, 
a  cave  on  Mount  Hira,  known  in  Islam  as  the  Mount 
of  Light,  was  a  favourite  resort.  It  was  a  lofty,  barren, 
conical  hill  two  or  three  miles  north  of  the  city,  and 
there  too  Zaid  the  Sceptic  had  had  his  hermit's  abode, 
when  he  also  had  renounced  the  idolatry  of  his  fore- 
fathers. And  when,  in  his  fortieth  year  (probably), 
Muhammad,  as  his  wont  was,  was  spending  the  month 
of  Rajab,  one  of  the  months  of  peace,  in  spiritual 
wrestlings,  communing  with  his  own  heart,  and 
earnestly  seeking  for  guidance,  in  the  midst  of  his 
"prayers  and  supplications"  (Ar.  Tahannoth  =  Heb. 
Tehinnoth,  according  to  Deutsch's  brilliant  explana- 
tion), the  liglit  of  revelation  seemed  suddenly  to  burst 
upon  him.  In  the  middle  of  the  night,  on  the  "  blessed 
night  Al  Qadr  "  (power,  might),  a  glorious  angel  roused 
him  from  sleep ;  three  times  the  mighty  voice  sounded 
in  his  ear,  and  three  times  the  powerful  constraining 
grasp  was  laid  upon  him.  Twice  he  refused  the 
mission,  but  the  third  call  broke  down  every  barrier, — 
and  lie  took  up  tlie  message  from  his  Lord,  brought  by 
the  angel  Gabriel,  the  same  who  had  brought  down 
the  glad  tidings  of  the  Annunciation  to  the  Virgin 
Mary.  Probably  no  one  will  doubt  that  the  whole 
story  was  woven  by  Muhammad,  perhaps  only  half 
consciously,  out   of   fragments  dimly   remembered  of 


56         MUHAMMAD  AND   HIS  POWER 

Jewish  and  Christian  records.  The  first  message  ran, 
graven  as  with  a  pen  of  iron  on  the  tablet  of  his  heart 
(to  use  his  own  phrase) — 

"Cry  (or  'Kead')  in  the  name  of  thy  Lord, — 
Who  created  man  from  clots  of  blood  ! 
Cry,  for  thy  Lord  is  most  bountiful, 
Who  has  taught  the  use  of  the  pen. 
Taught  man  what  he  knew  not  !  " 

Muhammad  was  terrified  at  the  vision,  and  returned 
to  Khadija  in  great  trouble.  Then,  as  ever,  she  com- 
forted him,  soothed  his  fears  lest  he  should  be 
"possessed,"  and  pointed  to  his  blameless  life  as 
proof  that  God's  purposes  with  him  could  only  be 
good. 

On  this  first  vision  followed  a  long  period,  which 
tradition  sometimes  extends  even  to  seven  years,  but 
which  is  generally  held  to  have  been  two,  during 
which  the  visions  were  interrupted.  During  this 
time  Muhammad  continued  his  solitary  musings  and 
prayers,  seeking  for  light.  Often  anguish  of  mind 
made  his  brain  reel,  and  he  sought  to  take  his  own 
life  by  casting  himself  headlong  down  a  precij)ice. 
But  ever,  as  he  told  the  tale,  Gabriel  stayed  him  from 
the  rash  act,  though  the  final  seal  of  his  mission  was 
withheld.  What  really  happened  in  this  mysterious 
interval  must  always  be  matter  of  conjecture. 
Sprenger,  who  altogether  rejects  Muhammad's  claim 
to  originality,  and  has  but  small  belief  in  his  sincerity, 
has  no  doubt  that  the  "revelation"  was  only  a  veil 
for  the  resolve  to  search  the  Scriptures  of  the  Jews 
and  Christians,  and  that  the  interval  was  used  in 
reading,   hearing,   and   being   taught  in  them.     Muir 


FIRST  "REVELATIONS"  57 

again  collects  some  of  the  short,  passionate,  lyrical  out- 
bursts which,  now  preserved  in  the  Quran,  he  believes 
to  be  prior  to  the  claim  to  preach,  and  assigns  them 
to  this  time.  Neither  explanation  is  free  from  ob- 
jection, nor  probably  would  any  other  be ;  the  evidence 
rests  wholly  on  Muhammad's  own  report,  and  partakes 
of  the  confusion  of  an  agonising  mind.  We  shall 
escape  a  good  deal  of  perplexity  by  following  Muslim 
tradition,  remembering  that  the  Quraish  always  de- 
clared that  Muhammad's  teaching  was  partly  derived 
from  foreign  secret  prompters,  and  partly  from  his 
own  heated  imagination.  The  question  whether  he 
could  or  could  not  read  is  not  of  great  importance, 
and  is  at  this  date  insoluble.  He  always  called  him- 
self the  "Unlettered  Prophet,"  and  appealed  to  the 
perfect  harmony  and  eloquence  of  his  Quran  as  being 
therefore  a  miracle,  sufficient  to  prove  his  prophetic 
mission.  Inability  to  read  would  not  have  been  a  bar 
to  acquisition  of  knowledge,  and  a  retentive  memory 
(such  as  was  common  in  Arabia)  would  secure  it. 
During  this  period  of  mental  strain,  Muhammad's  state 
gave  his  friends  much  concern;  they  feared  he  was 
verging  on  insanity,  and  he  himself  at  times  shared 
that  fear.  In  the  days  of  his  early  preaching,  his 
fellow-citizens  scoffed  at  him  as  a  poet,  a  visionary,  a 
soothsayer,  and  one  possessed;  and  against  these  re- 
proaches he  constantly  protests  in  the  Quran,  declar- 
ing with  passion  that  he  is  a  Prophet  sent  of  God, 
inspired  and  taught  by  Him  alone,  and  every  word  of 
command,  or  story,  or  exhortation  has  (expressed  or 
implied)  the  preface — "  Say  !  "  i.e.  in  the  name  of  the 
Lord.  Every  word  of  the  Quran,  as  Muhammad 
taught,  existed  from  all  eternity,  the   Word  of  God, 


58         MUHAMMAD   AND   HIS  POWER 

engraven  on  the  Preserved  Tablet,  and  is  chanted  in 
heaven  by  angels  and  archangels  and  by  the  prophets 
of  olden  time. 

At  the  end  of  the  period  of  "remission,"  or  sus- 
pension of  messages  from  on  high,  Muhammad  was 
again  visited  by  the  angel  Gabriel,  who  gave  him 
the  divine  command  to  preach  to  his  people,  assured 
him  of  the  truth  of  his  message,  and  dispelled  doubts 
and  fears  of  the  reality  of  his  commission.  Pious  fable 
tells  how  his  heart  was  again  purified,  to  make  it  fit 
for  the  divine  message ;  but  it  is  left  to  us  to  imagine 
hoAV  gradually  there  took  shape  in  his  mind  the 
cardinal  doctrines  of  the  faith  which  thenceforward 
he  preached,  the  existence  of  one  God  only,  Almighty, 
absolute  Ruler  over  all,  whose  decrees  are  fixed  from 
all  eternity,  with  whom  none  may  intercede  save  by 
His  permission,  merciful  and  compassionate,  righteous, 
yet  forgiving;  the  certainty  of  the  resurrection  and 
final  judgment  of  all  mankind,  when  sin  shall  be 
punished  and  righteousness  rewarded;  the  mission  of 
Muhammad  as  the  Apostle  of  God,  the  acceptance  of 
whose  teaching  was  the  sole  and  all-sufl[icient  condition 
of  salvation,  and  the  rejection  of  it  the  only  unpardon- 
able sin.  The  guilt  and  folly  of  idol-worship,  the  in- 
finite importance  of  the  future  life, — these  were  the 
two  prime  elements  of  Muhammad's  early  message. 

When  these  central  truths  had  taken  full  possession 
of  his  mind,  when  he  had  persuaded  himself  that  truly 
he  was  called  of  God  to  preach  the  true  faith  to  his 
people  and  to  the  world, — his  doubts  all  vanished,  and 
he  clothed  the  circumstances  of  his  call  to  preach  in 
the  following  story.  As  lie  wandered  in  perplexity  in 
the  mountains  and  rocks  about  Mount  Hira,  where  the 


THE  CALL  TO  PROPHESY  59 

first  revelation  had  come  down  to  him,  and  despaired 
because  no  more  had  been  vouchsafed,  suddenly  a 
mighty  voice  from  heaven  called  him.  He  looked  up, 
and  lo  !  Gabriel  sat  upon  a  throne  between  heaven 
and  earth ;  and  he  said,  "  Verily,  0  Muhammad,  thou 
art  the  Prophet  of  God,  and  I  am  Gabriel."  Comforted 
and  streno'thened  he  went  home ;  but  the  conflict  of 
emotions  had  exhausted  him,  and  he  prayed  Khadija 
to  wrap  him  in  a  mantle  ;  and,  as  he  thus  lay,  the  call 
came  in  the  words  of  the  74th  Sura  (Chapter  of  the 
Quran):  "0  thou  that  are  covered,  rise  up  and 
preach,  and  extol  thy  Lord !  Make  clean  thy  gar- 
ments, and  flee  all  abomination !  Grant  not  favour 
to  gain  increase,  and  wait  for  thy  Lord !  When  the 
trumpet  shall  sound,  verily  that  day  is  a  day  of  dread, 
terrible  for  them  that  misbelieve ! "  Such  was  the 
message  that  sent  Muhammad  forth  on  his  mission, 
from  which  henceforward  he  never  sw^erved,  though 
once  only  for  a  very  brief  time  he  faltered.  It  is 
probable  that  in  the  interval  between  the  first  and 
the  second  revelation  he  had  sought  converts  among 
the  people,  had  failed,  and  had  fallen  into  a  state  of 
despondency  like  that  of  the  prophet  Elijah  when, 
fainting  under  the  persecution  of  Jezebel,  he  prayed 
that  he  might  die,  "for  I  am  not  better  than  my 
fathers,"  "  I,  even  I  only  am  left."  There  came  also, 
along  with  the  command  to  preach,  the  comfortable 
assurance  that  God  was  with  him — "  By  the  brightness 
of  day,  and  the  darkling  night,  thy  Lord  hath  not 
forsaken  thee,  neither  hath  He  hated  tliee !  Verily 
the  life  to  come  is  better  than  that  which  is  now,  and 
at  the  last  He  shall  give  thee  that  wherewith  thou 
shalt   be   well   pleased?     Did   not  He   find    thee    an 


6o         MUHAMMAD   AND   HIS   POWER 

orphan,  and  care  for  tlice ;  erring,  and  He  guided  thee  ; 
needy,  and  He  enriched  thee  ?  Wherefore  oppress  not 
the  orphan,  and  deny  not  the  beggar,  and  show  forth  the 
mercies  of  thy  Lord  ! "  And  again  he  was  strengthened 
by  the  memory  of  past  deliverance,  and  urged  thereby 
to  labour  for  his  Lord  (S.  94) :  "  Have  not  we  enlarged 
thy  breast  ?  and  removed  from  thee  the  load  that  galled 
thy  back  ?  and  exalted  thy  fame  ?  Verily  with  diffi- 
culty is  ease  !  verily  with  difficulty  is  ease  !  And  when 
thou  art  at  leisure,  then  toil  and  thirst  after  thy 
Lord!" 

Thus  heartened  and  strengthened,  Muhammad 
asserted  his  prophetic  claims.  He  had  at  first  but 
small  success  in  his  mission,  and  the  citizens  for  the 
most  part  scoffed  at  and  reviled  him.  But  slowly  he 
gathered  about  him  a  small  company  of  devoted 
followers,  men  and  women,  freemen  and  slaves, — and 
the  best  proof  of  his  sterling  character  and  absolute 
sincerity  at  this  time  is  to  be  found  in  the  fact  that  his 
first  converts  were  those  who  knew  him  best,  and 
whose  eyes  no  weakness  of  character  could  escape,  nor 
cloak  of  hypocrisy  hide  his  true  nature.  First  and 
best  was  his  faithful  wife,  Kliadija,  Vvdiose  belief  in  him 
upheld  his  courage  when  all  was  dark,  and  with  her 
doubtless  his  daughters  grew  up  in  the  faith.  Next, 
rivals  for  the  honour  of  first  disciple,  came  his  young 
cousin  Ali,  whose  fiery  zeal  and  loyal  spirit  ever  stood 
the  prophet  in  such  good  stead,  and  Zaid,  son  of  Harith, 
whom  he  had  set  free  from  servitude  and  adopted  as 
his  son,  and  who  remained  bound  to  him  by  cords  of 
love  more  firmly  than  by  any  forced  bondage, — and 
who,  in  later  years,  made  for  him  the  utmost  sacrifice  a 
man  can  make,  that  of  a  cherished  wife  surrendered  to 


EARLY  CONVERTS  6i 

his  Master's  love.  Of  Ali  it  is  told  that  he  was  Muham- 
mad's companion  when  they  worshipped  Allah  secretly- 
together,  and  his  father,  Abu  Talib,  who  had  heard  of 
his  nephew's  new  doctrine,  came  suddenly  upon  them. 
"  What,  my  nephew,"  he  said,  "  is  this  new  faith  I  see 
thee  follow  ?  "  And  he  answered,  "  This,  my  uncle,  is 
the  religion  of  God,  and  of  His  angels,  and  of  His 
prophets;  the  religion  of  Abraham.  The  Lord  hath 
sent  me  an  apostle  to  His  servants ;  and  none  is  so 
worthy  as  thou  to  be  called  to  assist  the  Prophet  of  the 
Lord."  Abu  Talib  could  not  forsake  in  his  old  age  the 
religion  of  his  fathers ;  but  he  promised  Muhammad  his 
fullest  protection,  and  bade  his  son  Ali  follow  him, "  for 
he  Avill  lead  thee  into  no  evil  way."  But  the  most  im- 
portant of  the  earliest  converts  was  Abu  Bakr,  son  of 
Kuhafa,  one  of  the  chief  men  of  Mecca — wealthy, 
generous,  and  of  very  high  character.  Singularly 
truthful,  mild,  upright,  and  firm,  he  is  known  as  Al 
SidcUq,  "  the  Truthful,"  as  Muhammad  himself  was  Al 
Amin,  "  the  Trusty."  His  name  Abu  Bakr  ^  means 
"  Father  of  the  Virgin,"  that  is,  of  Ayesha,  the  only 
wife  of  Muhammad  who  had  not  been  previously 
married,  and  who  at  the  time  of  her  father's  conversion 
Avas  but  a  child  of  two  or  three  years  old.  To  Abu 
Bakr,  afterwards  Muhammad's  first  successor,  the  debt 
of  Islam  is  very  great,  though  Sprenger  perhaps  ex- 
aggerates it ;  and  of  him  Muhammad  said :  "  I  never 
invited  any  to  the  faith  who  displayed  not  hesitation 
and  perplexity,  excepting  only  Abu  Bakr;  but  he, 
v/hen  I  offered  him  Islam,  tarried  not,  nor  was  per- 
plexed."    They  had  long  been  friends,  were  of  almost 

^  The  sobriquet  has   completely   displaced   the   real  name,   Abd  al 
Kaaba. 


62         MUHAMMAD  AND   HIS   POWER 

equal  age,  and  lived  in  the  same  quarter  of  the  city. 
He  was  short  of  stature,  fair,  and  of  delicate  features, 
with  a  high  forehead,  and  keen,  deep-set  eyes.  He 
greatly  helped  the  infant  faith  by  tlic  use  he  made  of 
his  wealth  in  redeeming  from  bondage  and  ill-usage  the 
many  slave  converts,  among  whom  most  notable  was 
Bilal,  whose  mighty  voice  called  the  faithful  to  public 
prayer.  Uthman,  afterwards  third  Khalifa,  came  next, 
a  merchant  also  like  Abu  Bakr ;  and  Abd  al  Rahman 
and  Talha.  Muhammad  cemented  the  ties  of  disciple- 
ship  by  those  of  affinity :  to  Zaid  he  gave  his  nurse, 
Umm  Aiman,  and  to  Ali  and  Uthman  respectively  his 
daughters  Fatima  and  Rukaya.  All  told,  however,  at 
the  end  of  three  years  of  private  preaching,  the  fol- 
lowers of  the  new  faith  numbered  no  more  than  from 
thirty  to  forty.  But  the  people  of  Mecca,  and  not  least 
Muhammad's  own  near  kinsfolk,  bitterly  opposed  his 
new  doctrine, — and  its  worst  foes  were  two  of  his  uncles, 
Abu  Jahl  and  Abu  Lahb  (''Fathers  of  Folly  and  of 
Fire  "),  the  hitter  of  whom  is  with  his  wife  singled  out 
for  a  special  chapter  of  cursing,  being  the  only  person, 
besides  Zaid  ^  and  the  Prophet  ^  himself,  who  is  men- 
tioned in  the  Quran  by  name.  The  short  chapter  is 
characteristic  of  Muhammad's  fierce  spirit,  and  may  be 
quoted  entire  — 

"  111  tlie  name  of  God," merciful  and  gracious  ! 
Abu  Laliab's  two  hands  shall  perish,  and  he  shall  perish  ! 
His  wealth  shall  not  avail  him,  nor  that  which  he  hath  earned  I 
He  shall  broil  in  a  fire  that  flames,^  and  his  wife  carrying  faggots  ! 
— on  her  neck  a  cord  of  palm  fibres."         (Palmer,  S.  111.) 

1  In  respect  of  the  flivorce  of  his  wife,  that  she  might  be  married  to 
the  Prophet. 

^Muhammad  is  named  in  the  Quran  four  times. 
^  A  pun  on  his  name. 


THE  FIRST  PREACHING  6^ 

Having  now  got  together  a  small  and  devoted  band 
of  followers,  Muhammad  took  a  further  step  in 
advance.  The  doctrines  he  had  so  far  preached  were, 
he  contended,  no  new  thing ;  he  was  not  the  preacher 
of  a  new  religion,  but  the  restorer  and  reviver  of  the 
ancient  faith  of  Abraham,  forgotten  or  overlaid  by  the 
idolatr}^  and  superstitions  that  had  grown  up  and 
choked  the  pure  worship  to  which  the  great  founder 
had  dedicated  the  Holy  House  of  Mecca,  the  Kaaba. 
The  guardianship  of  the  fane  was  in  the  hands  of  his 
kindred,  its  purification  was  what  he  had  greatly  at 
heart,  the  ties  of  blood  counted  for  much  among  the 
Arabs,  and  he  thought  the  time  had  come  when  he 
might  with  some  hope  of  success  preach  more  publicly, 
but  especially  appealing  to  his  own  kinsfolk,  to  depart 
from  idolatry,  and  to  follow  the  old  pure  faith  which 
he  proposed.  He  did  not,  of  course,  give  any  such 
reasons  as  the  above  for  his  action.  The  angel  Gabriel 
had,  he  said,  brought  down  a  further  revelation  of 
God's  will,  of  His  merciful  purposes  to  the  Prophet's 
kindred,  for  whose  welfare  he  was  so  deeply  concerned, 
— "  Arise  and  warn !  Publish  that  Avhich  hath  been 
commanded  thee,  and  withdraw  from  the  idolaters. 
We  will  take  part  with  thee  against  the  scoffers, 
and  them  who  join  other  gods  with  God.  Invoke  thou 
no  other  god  with  Him,  lest  thou  become  of  them  that 
are  appointed  for  punishment.  Preach  thou  to  thy 
kinsmen,  thy  near  ones  ;  spread  the  wings  of  protection 
over  them  that  believe  and  follow  thee,  and  say:  I 
bring  you  a  clear  message." 

In  obedience  to  these  commands,  Muhammad  first 
preached  openly  to  the  Quraish  from  the  little  hill  of 
Al  Safa,  the  same  sacred  eminence  which  is  the  scene 


64         MUHAMMAD  AND  HIS  POWER 

to  this  day  of  preaching  at  the  annual  pilgrimage. 
He  followed  tliis  up  by  a  general  invitation  to 
the  family  of  Abd  al  Muttalib  to  an  entertainment, 
after  wliich  he  intended  to  deliver  his  solemn 
message.  A  first  attempt  was  defeated  by  Abu 
Lahb,  his  uncle,  but  on  the  second  he  secured 
his  audience  and  fulfilled  his  mission.  Thus  he 
spake :  "  I  knoAV  no  man  in  the  land  of  Arabia  ^vho 
can  lay  before  his  kinsfolk  a  more  excellent  ofifer  than 
that  which  I  now  make  to  you.  I  offer  you  the  happi- 
ness both  of  this  world  and  of  that  which  is  to  come. 
God  Almighty  hath  commanded  me  to  call  mankind 
unto  Him.  Who,  therefore,  among  3^ou  will  second  me 
in  that  work,  and  thereby  become  my  brother,  my  vice- 
gerent, m}'  Khalifa  ('  successor  ')  ?  "  At  once  impetuous 
Ali,  wliom  we  may  call  the  Peter  of  Islam,  sprang  to 
his  feet  and  exclaimed :  "  I,  0  Apostle  of  God,  will  be 
thy  minister  (wazir).  I  will  knock  out  the  teetJi,  tear 
out  the  eyes,  rip  up  the  bellies,  and  cut  oft'  the  legs  of 
all  who  shall  dare  to  oppose  thee."  Then  Muhammad 
embraced  him  before  the  assembled  guests,  and  said : 
"  This  is  my  brother,  my  deputy,  my  Khalifa :  hear 
then,  and  obey  him."  Then  the  whole  company  broke 
into  laughter,  and  told  the  venerable  Abu  Talib  that  he 
must  now  be  obedient  to  his  own  son ! 

It  is  of  the  feast  on  this  occasion  that  is  told  the 
story  of  a  miracle  of  feeding,  which  may  serve  as  a 
specimen  of  the  tales  with  which  later  ages  embellished 
the  Prophet's  early  career,  regardless  of  his  own  dis- 
claimer of  miraculous  power.  Ali,  who  had  been 
directed  to  furnish  the  meal,  had  not  been  able  to  pro- 
vide for  more  than  one  guest ;  but  though  forty  Avere 
present,  all  ate,  and  were  filled.      The  prominent  place 


INCREASING  BOLDNESS  65 

given  on  this  occasion  to  Ali,  and  especially  the  naming 
of  him  as  "  Successor,"  points  to  invention  by  Shiah 
partisans  in  later  times ;  but  the  main  fact  of  the  first 
public  preaching  being  addressed  to  a  gathering  of  the 
family  is  in  itself  likely,  and  is  quite  in  accordance 
with  Muhammad's  methods. 

Notwithstanding  this  repulse,  he  must  have  derived 
encouragement  from  the  meeting,  for  he  went  on  to 
more  boldness  in  his  preaching.  He  denounced  the 
folly  of  trusting  to  dumb  idols,  who  could  neither  hear 
nor  see,  and  had  no  power  to  help  their  worshippers, 
and  he  solemnly  warned  them  of  the  judgment  to  come. 
He  appealed  to  his  character  among  them,  and  asked  if 
they  would  believe  him  if  he  had  warned  them  of  the 
approach  of  an  earthly  foe ;  and  they  answered,  "  Yea, 
verily,  for  we  have  ever  found  thee  a  speaker  of  truth." 
Then  he  said,  "Of  a  truth  Allah  hath  appointed  me 
his  Apostle  to  you  all !  I  swear  by  Allah  that  there  is 
no  God  besides  Him  !  Ye  will  all  die  as  though  ye 
fell  asleep,  and  ye  will  be  raised  again  as  though  ye 
awoke.  For  all  your  deeds  ye  must  give  an  account, 
and  ye  shall  be  punished  or  rewarded  according  to 
your  deserts."  But  few  heeded  him,  and  his  uncle, 
Abu  Lahb,  derided  him,  saying,  "  Our  kinsman  is 
possessed,  care  not  for  him."  And  thereafter,  when  he 
passed  through  the  streets,  they  would  say,  "  Lo,  the 
man  who  gives  news  about  heaven,  and  with  whom  the 
angels  of  God  hold  converse ! "  Yet  he  went  on  with 
his  preaching,  and  boldly  taught  that  their  forefathers, 
who  had  died  without  a  knowledge  of  his  mission,  were 
condemned  to  the  pains  of  hell. 

Muhammad  went  on  with  his  teaching,  and  sought 
specially  to  influence  and  win  over  the  leaders  of  the 
5 


66         MUHAMMAD  AND   HIS  POWER 

people.  It  is  to  this  time  that  is  assigned  a  pleasing 
instance  of  that  humility  and  real  kindliness  of  nature 
which  were  of  such  use  to  him  throughout  his  life.  As 
one  day  he  was  earnestly  pressing  his  mission  on  some 
of  the  chief  men  of  Mecca,  a  blind  man,  Abdallah,  son 
of  Umm  Maqtum,  came  up  and  importuned  him  to 
recite  from  the  Quran  to  him.  The  Prophet  turned 
impatiently  away  from  him,  but  soon  after  repented  of 
the  harshness,  and  produced  against  himself  the  sharp 
rebuke  embalmed  to  this  day  in  the  sacred  Book — 

"  Tlie  Prophet  frowned  and  turned  liis  back,  for  that  there  came 

to  him  a  blind  man  ! 
But  what  would  make  thee  know  whether  liaply  he  may  be 

purified  ?  or  may  be  mindful  and  the  reminder  profit  him  ? 
But  as  for  him  who  is  wealthy,  thou  dost  attend  to  him,  and 

thou  dost  not  care  that  he  is  not  purified  ;  but  as  for  him 

who  Cometh  to  thee  earnestly  fearing  the  while,  from  him 

thou  turnest  away  ! 
Nay,  verily !   The  Quran  is  a  memorial,  and  whoso  pleaseth 

will  remember  it, — 
In  honoured   pages  exalted,  purified,  in  the  hands  of  noble, 

righteous  scribes  ^ !  "  (S,  80). 

Ever  thereafter  Muhammad  showed  the  blind  man 
special  respect  and  honour,  greeting  him  with  the 
words,  "Welcome  the  man  for  whose  sake  my  Lord 
rebuked  me ! "  and  in  the  days  of  his  power  he  twice 
made  him  g-overnor  of  Medina. 

Thus  gradually  was  growing  the  number  of  Muham- 
mad's adherents,  and  the  fears  of  the  Quraish  increased 
day  by  day.  They  tried  again,  as  they  had  tried 
before,  to  detach  Abu  Talib  from  him,  but  in  vain. 
They  then  plied  him  with  temptation.  One  day,  as  he 
sat  in  the  enclosure  of  the  Kaaba,  one  of  their  number, 

^  The  ansjels. 


RESISTS  TEMPTATION  6y 

Utba,  whose  own  younger  brother  had  joined  the  new 
faith,  sat  down  beside  him,  and  said — 

"  O  son  of  my  friend,  you  are  a  man  eminent  botli 
for  your  great  qualities  and  for  your  noble  birth. 
Althougli  you  have  thrown  the  country  into  turmoil, 
created  strife  among  families,  outrao^ed  our  gods,  and 
taxed  our  forefathers  and  wise  men  with  impiety  and 
error,  yet  would  we  deal  kindly  with  you.  Listen  to 
the  offers  I  have  to  make  to  you,  and  consider  whether 
it  would  not  be  well  for  you  to  accept  tliem." 

Muhammad  bade  him  speak  on,  and  he  said — 

"  Son  of  my  friend,  if  it  is  wealth  you  seek,  we  will 
join  together  to  give  you  greater  riches  than  any 
Quraishi  has  possessed.  If  ambition  move  you,  we  will 
make  you  our  chief,  and  do  nothing  save  by  your 
command.  If  you  are  under  the  power  of  an  evil 
spirit,  which  seems  to  haunt  and  dominate  you  so  that 
you  cannot  shake  off  its  yoke,  then  will  we  call  in 
skilful  physicians,  and  give  tliem  much  gold  that  they 
may  cure  you." 

"  Have  you  said  all  ? "  asked  Muhammad ;  and  then, 
hearing  that  all  had  been  said,  he  poured  forth  on  his 
amazed  listener  the  41st  chapter  of  the  Quran — 

"  Lo,  a  revelation  from  the  Merciful  and  Gracious,  a 
book  whose  signs  (or  verses)  are  clearly  set  forth,  an 
Arabic  Quran  for  the  people  who  know,  a  herald  of 
glad  tidings  and  a  warning.  But  most  of  them  turn 
aside  and  hear  not,  and  say,  '  Our  hearts  are  veiled 
from  that  to  which  thou  dost  call  us,  and  in  our  ears  is 
dulness,  and  between  us  and  thee  there  is  a  veil !  Act 
thou,  we  too  shall  act.'  ^  Say,  '  I  am  but  a  mortal  like 
yourselves,  I  am  inspired  that  your  God  is  one  God ; 

^  I.e.  Go  tliy  way,  and  we  will  go  ours. 


6S         MUHAMMAD  AND   HIS  POWER 

then  go  straiglit  to  Him,  and  ask  forgiveness  of  Him ; 
and  woe  to  the  idolaters,  who  give  not  ahns,  and  in  the 
hereafter  disbelieve.'  ^ 

"  Verilj^  those  Avho  believe  and  do  right,  for  them  is 
a  hire  that  is  not  grudged. 

"  Say,  '  What,  do  you  really  misbelieve  in  Him  who 
created  the  earth  in  two  days,  and  do  you  make  peers 
for  Him, — who  is  the  Lord  of  the  worlds  ? '" 

Then,  after  warning  his  hearer  by  the  stories  of 
ancient  Ad  and  Thamud,  destroyed  for  rejecting  the 
prophets  sent  to  them,  he  continued — 

"  And  the  day  (shall  come)  when  the  enemies  of 
God  shall  be  gathered  into  the  fire,  marshalled  along ; 
until,  when  they  come  to  it,  their  hearing  and  their 
eyesight  and  their  skin  shall  bear  witness  against 
them,  and  shall  say,  '  He  created  you  at  first  and 
unto  Him  shall  ye  return,  but  ye  thought  God  knew 
not  of  your  doings,  and  that  thought  has  been  your 
ruin.' 

"  Them  who  misbelieve  will  We  make  to  taste  keen 
torment,  and  the  recompense  of  the  enemies  of  God  is 
the  fire :  for  them  is  an  eternal  abode  therein, — a 
requital  for  their  gainsaying  Our  signs. 

"  But  those  who  say,  '  Our  Lord  is  God,  and  walk 
uprightly,'  upon  them  do  the  angels  descend  (and  say), 
'  Fear  not,  nor  be  grieved,  but  receive  the  glad  tidings 
of  paradise  promised  unto  you :  and  ye  shall  have 
therein  what  your  souls  desire.' 

"  Of  His  signs  are  the  night  and  the  day,  and  the  sun 
and  the  moon.  Worship  not  the  sun,  neither  the  moon  ; 
but  worship  God  who  hath  created  them,  if  ye  be  His 
servants.     But  if  they  be  too  big  with  pride — yet  those 

^  It  is  God  who  speaks. 


SERMON  TO  UTBA  69 

who  are  with  tliy  Lord  celebrate  His  praises  by  night 
and  day,  and  are  never  weary. 

"  And  this  too  is  a  sioii :  thou  seest  the  earth  faint, 
and  Avhen  we  send  down  rain  upon  it,  it  stirs  and  swells ; 
verily,  He  who  quickens  it  will  surely  quicken  the 
dead ;  verily,  He  is  mighty  over  all. 

"  Whoso  doeth  right  it  is  for  his  own  soul,  and  whoso 
doeth  evil  it  is  against  it,  for  thy  Lord  is  not  unjust 
towards  His  servants." 

Such  was  the  sermon  preached  to  Utba,  of  which 
only  an  abridgment  can  be  given ;  and  he  went  back 
awed  to  those  who  had  sent  him,  and  thereafter 
followed  Muhammad.  For  he  said  he  had  heard  such 
things  as  came  not  to  his  ears  before,  not  vision  nor 
poetry,  but  a  clear  message  from  God.  Further  over- 
tures were  made,  and  repulsed  ;  and  then  recourse  was 
had  to  stronger  measures.  It  does  not  appear,  however, 
that  Muhammad  himself  and  his  chief  followers  had  to 
bear  more  than  insult  and  social  ostracism  :  torture  fell 
on  slaves,  and  severe  hardship  on  those  who  had  no 
powerful  protectors  in  Mecca.  And  here  it  was  that 
the  wealth  and  pitiful  nature  of  Abu  Bakr  served  to 
foster  the  infant  Church  of  Islam,  redeeming  the  slaves 
and  aiding  the  destitute. 


CHAPTER  VI 

The  New  Sect  Persecuted — Migration  to  Abyssinia — Tlic  Debate — 
Miiliammad's  Lapse  and  Recovery — Tlie  Interdict  by  Quraish 
— Its  Removal — Fresh  Converts — Death  of  Khadija  and  of 
Abu  Talib — Marriage  with  Sauda  and  with  Ayesha — Help 
from  Medina — The  First  and  Second  Pledges  of  Aqaba — The 
Flight — The  "  Night  Journey  "  to  Jerusalem  and  Heaven  ! 

The  strife  between  Muhammad  and  his  townsfolk 
grew  rapidly  more  bitter.  Persecution  and  violence 
were  met  by  defiance  and  threats ;  but,  in  the  fourth 
year  of  his  preaching,  Muhammad  took  up  his  abode  in 
the  house  of  Arqam,  an  early  convert,  and  made  it  a 
meeting-place  for  all  converts  and  inquirers  (613  A.D.). 
Here  the  little  band  grew,  and  Muhammad's  preaching 
became  more  precise,  though  as  yet  he  was  but  a 
Warner,  with  a  mission  to  persuade,  to  promise  rewards 
and  threaten  punishments  in  the  future,  but  with  no 
authority  to  compel  men  to  accept  his  message.  His 
earliest  converts  after  he  went  to  the  house  of  Arqam 
were  slaves,  and  these  were  by  the  hostile  Meccans 
subjected  to  torture  by  thirst  and  exposure  in  the 
burning  sands.  Some  recanted,  but  only  for  a  time, 
and  were  granted  a  special  disj)ensation  ;  but  Bilal,  the 
Abyssinian,  endured  every  extreme  without  flinching. 
In  the  fifth  year  of  the  preaching,  Muhammad  exliorted 
his  followers  to  seek  refuge  with  the  Najashi  (or  King) 

70 


EXILES   IN  ABYSSINIA  71 

of  Abyssinia,  and  thither  many  of  them  went,  and  were 
hospitably  received  :  this  is  the  first  migration. 

Considering  the  later  antagonism  between  Christian- 
ity and  the  new  religion,  Islam,  founded  by  Muhammad, 
and  the  harsh  measures  which  he  himself  and,  still 
more,  his  chief  lieutenants  took  with  Christian  tribes 
and  princes  within  a  few  years  of  this  time,  it  seems 
stranofe  that  he  should  have  sent  his  followers  to  take 
refuge  at  the  court  of  the  Christian  King  of  Abyssinia. 
They  and  he,  however,  had  every  reason  to  be  thankful 
for  the  choice,  for  they  found  a  peaceful  retreat  with 
an  honourable  host.  The  fact  will  appear  even  more 
noteworthy  when  we  remember  that  the  Prophet  was 
born  in  that  same  "  year  of  the  Elephant,"  when  the 
hosts  of  Abyssinia  advanced  to  the  walls  of  Mecca. 
Muslim  tradition  has  given  us  a  fabulous  account  of 
what  took  place  at  the  Court  of  the  Najashi  ("Negus," 
as  we  know  the  title),  between  the  refugees  and  the 
ambassadors  from  the  Quraish,  who  demanded  that 
they  should  be  sent  back  to  be  dealt  with  in  their  own 
city.  The  story  is  apocryphal,  no  doubt,  but  it  prob- 
ably represents  accurately  enough  the  attitude  of  the 
king,  and  the  doctrines  at  that  time  preached  by  the 
Reformer. 

The  two  envoys  of  the  Quraish  had  brought  with 
them  valuable  gifts  for  the  king  and  his  courtiers, 
and  had  so  won  the  ear  of  some  of  the  chiefs.  The 
kino-,  however,  resolved  to  hear  both  sides,  and  held  an 
audience  for  the  purpose.  The  envoys  claimed  to  have 
the  refugees  expelled  from  Abyssinia  and  made  over  to 
them,  on  the  ground  that  their  leader  had  cast  off  the 
religion  of  liis  country,  and  was  preaching  another, 
"  different  alike  from  ours  and  from  that  of  the  King." 


72        MUHAMMAD  AND   HIS  POWER 

When  tlie}^  wore  introduced  to  the  presence,  the  Quraish 
envoys  prostrated  themselves,  as  the  custom  of  the 
country  was,  but  the  Muslims  did  not  so,  and  boldly 
said,  "  By  our  Propliet's  command  we  prostrate  our- 
selves only  before  the  One  True  God."  The  king 
wondered  and  was  awed,  and  told  them  of  the  Quraish 
demand.  At  their  request  the  king  asked  the  envoys 
whether  they  were  fugitive  slaves,  or  claimed  for  debt, 
or  for  murder  that  lay  on  their  heads,  that  they  should 
be  given  up.  But  they  answered,  "  Na}^,  they  are  free 
men  and  noble,  neither  are  they  fugitives  for  debt  nor 
for  blood  ;  but  we  claim  tliem  for  the  following  reason : 
These  people,  O  King,  have  abjured  the  religion  of  us 
and  our  forefathers;  they  have  insulted,  and  are  insult- 
ing, our  gods,  that  they  may  corrupt  the  morals  of  our 
young  men, — and  so  our  harmony  has  been  turned 
into  discord.  Give  them  up  to  us,  that  the  old  order 
of  things  may  be  restored." 

Then,  at  the  King's  bidding,  the  Muslims  declared 
how  indeed  they  had  followed  the  old  idolatry  till  it 
pleased  Allah  to  send  them  His  message  through  His 
apostle,  a  man  of  noble  birth  and  blameless  life,  "  who 
has  shown  us  (they  said)  by  infallible  signs,  proof  of 
his  mission,  and  has  taught  us  to  cast  away  idols  and 
to  worship  the  only  true  God.  He  has  commanded  us  to 
abstain  from  all  sin,  to  keep  faith,  to  observe  the  times 
of  fasting  and  of  prayer,  to  love  our  kinsmen,  to  pay 
tithes,  to  purify  our  lives,  and  to  follow  after  all  virtue. 
Therefore  do  our  enemies  persecute  us,  and  therefore 
have  we,  by  our  Prophet's  command,  sought  refuge  and 
protection  in  the  King's  country." 

And  when  the  King  desired  them  to  recite  some  part 
of  their  Propliet's  wondrous  message,  they  recited  the 


EXILES  PROTECTED  73 

first  part  of  the  chapter  of  Mary,  wherem  is  told  the 
story  of  tlie  birth  both  of  John  the  Baptist  and  of 
Jesus  Christ,  down  to  the  account  of  Mary  being  fed 
with  miraculous  food.  Thereupon  the  King  and  his 
bishops  were  affected  to  tears,  and  said  it  was  even  as 
in  their  gospel ;  and  the  King  bade  the  envoys  begone, 
for  they  should  in  no  wise  succeed. 

Yet  they  tried  again,  urging  that  Muhammad  and 
his  followers  blasphemed  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ.  Again 
the  Muslims  were  summoned,  and  asked  what  they 
thought  of  Jesus,  and  they  answered,  "Allah  Most 
Hio'h  hath  said.^ — He  is  the  servant  of  God  and  His 
apostle,  His  word  breatlied  into  the  Virgin's  womb,  a 
spirit  from  Him."  And  the  King  said, ''  Even  so  do  we 
believe.  Blessed  be  ye,  and  blessed  is  your  master.  I 
know  him  for  the  Prophet  of  God,  foretold  in  the 
gospel.  For  no  bribe  will  I  give  you  up.  Even  as  God 
gave  me  my  land  freely,  so  will  I  take  no  bribe." 
Then  he  returned  to  the  Quraish  their  gifts,  and  sent 
them  away ;  but  the  Muslims  abode  in  his  land  un- 
harmed. 

The  exiles,  however,  had  not  been  very  long  in 
Abj^ssinia  when  they  heard  a  report  that  the  Prophet 
and  the  Quraish  were  reconciled,  and  returned  home- 
wards on  the  strength  of  it :  and  this  indeed  had  hap- 
pened for  a  short  time.  The  story  is  a  strange  one, 
and  has  by  many  of  the  chief  Muhammadan  writers 
been  suppressed  or  denied  as  dishonouring  to  the  Prophet. 

Muhammad,  oppressed  by  a  sense  of  failure  in  his 

mission,  feeling  how  his  efforts  to  turn  his  countrymen 

from  their  idols  to  the  worsliip  of  the  living  and  true 

God  had  all  been  powerless,  was  one  day  preaching  at 

1  See  Q.  iv.  1G9-170. 


74         MUHAMMAD  AND   HIS  POWER 

tliG  Kaaba,  A\'hero  were  gathered  the  chiefs  of  the 
Quraish,  and  recited  the  lofty  claim  to  insj)iration 
(Sura  53), — "By  tlie  star  when  it  falleth,  your  companion 
erreth  not,  neither  is  he  mi.sled !  nor  speaketh  he  from 
lust !  It  is  but  an  inspiration  breathed  into  him  !  One 
taught  him,  who  is  mighty  in  power  and  of  great  under- 
standing, appearing  in  the  loftiest  sphere. 

"  Then  drew  he  near  and  hovered,  till  he  was  two  bows' 
length  off  or  nigher  still !  Then  he  inspired  his  servant 
with  what  he  inspired  him  ;  the  heart  belies  not  what  it 
saw  !     What,  will  ye  dispute  with  him  on  what  he  saw  ? 

"  Again,  another  time,  he  saw  him  (Gabriel)  by  the 
Lote-tree  which  none  may  pass,  near  which  is  the 
paradise  of  rest !  When  the  Lote-tree  covered  its 
mysteries,  his  sight  turned  not  aside,  nor  did  it 
wander:  he  saw  then  the  greatest  of  the  signs  of 
his  Lord. 

"  Have  ye  considered  Al  Lat  and  Al  Uzza,  and  Manat 
the  third  with  them  ? " 

And  then  he  yielded  to  the  temptation  of  Satan,  as 
he  afterwards  said,  or  to  the  deceit  of  his  own  heart, 
and  he  added — 

"  These  are  the  high-soaring  Cranes,^  and  verily  their 
intercession  may  be  hoped  for." 

This  Avas  just  the  attitude  of  the  idolaters,  who  held 
them  for  daughters  of  God,  who  would  intercede  for 
their  worshippers.  So,  when  the  chapter  was  ended 
with  the  words,  "  Wherefore  bow  down  before  God,  and 
serve  Him  ! "  the  chiefs,  gladly  accepting  the  concession, 
fell  on  their  faces  in  adoration.  They  were  satisfied  to 
admit  Muhammud's  claim  to  be  the  inspired  Prophet  of 
God,  if  he  would  grant  the  divine  intercessory  powers  of 
^  Or  "  .swan-nockcd  ii;oddesses  "  ;  tlic  word  is  not  met  \vitli  elsewhere. 


LAPSE  AND  RECOVERY  75 

their  goddesses.  And  so  peace  was  made,  the  news  was 
swiftly  carried  to  the  exiles,  and  they  returned  to  their 
homes. 

But  Muhammad  was  not  long  in  seeing  and  repenting 
of  his  error  and  unfaithfulness.  Muslim  tradition 
makes  his  recovery  almost  immediate,  averring  that  he 
retracted  his  error  the  very  next  day.  That  is  not 
likely,  but  it  w\as  not  long  delayed.  Instinctively  he 
felt  that  everything  was  lost  if  he  admitted  partners 
with  God,  or  acknowledged  that  the  idols  of  Mecca 
w^ere  anything;  and  wdien  next  he  came  before  his 
brethren,  he  substituted  for  the  words  of  compromise  an 
indignant  denial  of  any  power  in  the  idols, — and  so  it 
stands  to  this  day  recorded — 

"  Shall  there  be  male  offspring  unto  you,  and  female 
unto  Him  ?  That  were  an  unfair  division  !  They  are 
but  names  which  ye  have  named,  ye  and  your  fathers ! 
God  has  sent  down  no  authority  for  them !  They  do 
but  follow  fancy  and  what  their  souls  lust  after ! — And 

yet  there  has  come  to  them  guidance  from  their  Lord 

How  many  an  angel  is  in  heaven!  their  intercession 
avails  not  at  all,  save  after  God  has  given  permission." 
The  truce  was  at  an  end,  and  Muhammad  had  finally 
broken  with  the  idolaters.  He  had  regained  his  lost 
position,  and  comforted  himself  and  reassured  his 
followers  by  ascribing  the  lapse  to  a  passing  temptation 
of  the  devil.  But  the  exiles  had  returned,  and  the 
persecution  began  anew. 

Muhammad  himself  was  safe  under  the  protection  of 
his  uncle  Abu  Talib,  who  tried,  indeed,  once  to  persuade 
his  nephew  to  abandon  his  new  doctrine,  but  stood  forth 
his  protector  none  the  less  firmly  when  he  refused, 
saying,  "  Though  the  sun  sliould  tight  against  me  on 


T6        MUHAMMAD  AND  HIS  POWER 

my  riglit  hand  and  the  moon  on  my  left,  yet  shall  I  not 
hold  back,  till  the  Lord  make  manifest  my  cause,  or  I 
perish  ! "  And  when  one  day  Muhammad  could  not  be 
found,  and  there  was  fear  of  foul  play,  Abu  Talib 
gathered  an  armed  baud,  prepared  to  take  signal 
vengeance  if  his  nephew  had  been  murdered. 

The  exiles  returning  from  Abyssinia  found  persecu- 
tion hotter  than  ever,  and  soon  after  went  back  there, — 
and  were  followed  at  intervals  by  other  converts,  up  to 
a  total  number  of  101  adults,  besides  children  (83  men 
and  18  women).  Of  these  about  40  afterwards  re- 
turned to  Mecca,  but  t]ie  rest  remained  until  they 
joined  Muhammad  at  Medina  many  years  later.  Tlie 
Quraish  again  sent  two  envoys  with  rich  gifts  to  the 
Najashi,  to  try  to  get  him  to  give  up  tlie  fugitives ;  but 
after  an  audience  they  were  sent  back  with  a  refusal. 
Muslim  historians  record  that,  though  secretly  for  fear 
of  his  people,  the  King  even  embraced  their  doctrines — 
especially  that  which  degrades  the  Saviour  to  the  position 
of  a  mere  Prophet ;  they  say  also  that  Muhammad  on 
that  ground  offered  up  prayer  for  him  after  his  death. 

Meanwhile,  at  Mecca,  Hamza,  Muhammad's  uncle 
and  his  foster  -  brother,  the  son  of  Abd  al  Muttalib's 
old  age,  afterwards  surnamed  the  Lion  of  Islam,  had 
joined  the  new  faith,  being  roused  at  the  persecution 
of  his  kinsman.  An  even  more  important  adherent 
was  Omar,  son  of  Khattab,  afterwards  second  Khalifa, 
a  man  of  dauntless  courage  and  resolution,  feared 
and  respected  in  Mecca,  and  hitherto  a  bitter  opponent 
of  the  new  religion.  The  story  runs  that  he  had  set 
out  to  murder  IMuhammad,  Ijut  was  arrested  by  the 
news  that  his  own  sister  and  brother-in-law  were 
secret  converts;   he  went  to  their  house,  abused   and 


CONVERSION  OF  OMAR  ^^ 

assaulted  tlicm,  but  Avas  himself  converted  by  reading 
the  great  Chapter  "T.  H.,"  the  20th  of  the  Quran, 
which  his  sister  gave  him  to  read  after  he  had 
purified  himself.  "  For  none,"  said  she,  "  save  the  pure 
may  look  upon  it."  He  then  hastened  to  Muhammad 
at  the  house  of  Arqam,  and  made  public  profession 
of  the  Faith.  The  adhesion  of  these  two  powerful 
citizens  was  of  great  moment ;  and  Muhammad 
waxed  bold  in  his  preaching;  the  number  of  his 
followers  increased;  and  the  Quraish  in  alarm  placed 
the  whole  sect  under  interdict,  by  a  formal  deed, 
registered  and  laid  up  in  the  Kaaba.  For  three 
years  it  remained  in  force,  during  which  time  the 
persecuted  sect  were  shut  up  in  the  Shi'b,  or  Quarter, 
of  Hashim,  and  were  reduced  to  great  extremity, — 
being  able  to  issue  forth  only  during  the  sacred 
months.  At  last  the  compassionate  intervention  of 
some,  led  by  the  aged  Abu  Talib,  prevailed,  and  the 
interdict  was  annulled,  it  being  found  that  the  writing 
itself  had  been  destroyed  by  white  ants. 

But  the  year  of  his  release  from  the  ban,  the  tenth 
of  his  preaching  (620  A.D.),  brought  Muhammad  the 
heaviest  sorrows  of  his  life,  for  within  a  few  months  he 
was  bereaved  of  his  faithful  wife  Khadija  and  of  his 
lifelong  protector  Abu  Talib.  The  place  of  the  latter 
as  a  protector  was  taken  for  a  time  by  his  uncle  Abu 
Lahb,  who  soon  cast  him  off  again  on  finding  out  that  he 
condemned  to  hell  all  their  common  ancestry.  Khadija's 
place  was  filled  up  by  a  marriage  with  Sauda,  now  a 
widow  returned  from  Abyssinia,  whose  first  husband 
Sakran  had  lately  died  in  Mecca,  and  by  a  betrothal  to 
Ayesha,  daughter  of  Abu  Bakr,  now  only  six  years  old, 
— the  marriage  taking  place  at  Medina  three  years  later. 


78         MUHAMMAD  AND   HIS  POWER 

As  all  the  glowing  pictures  of  sensual  delights  in 
paradise  had  by  this  time  been  "revealed,"  and  as 
Khadija  was  sixty-five  years  old  at  her  death,  it  is  not 
unfair  to  suggest  that  Muhammad  was  now  yielding  to 
passions  which  had  hitherto  been  repressed,  and  to 
which  in  his  after  life  he  gave  free  rein,  with  effects 
ruinous  to  the  moral  teaching  of  his  reliofion. 

The  death  of  Khadija,  closely  followed  by  that  of 
Abu  Talib,  together  with  the  forced  exile  of  his 
followers  to  Abyssinia  and  renewed  persecution  by 
his  fellow-citizens,  compelled  Muhammad  to  look 
elsewhere  for  a  field  favourable  for  his  mission.  He 
first  sought  converts  in  the  neighbouring  town  of 
fertile  Ta,if,  but  was  driven  away  with  insult  and 
pelted  with  stones,  and  returned  sad  at  heart  to  Mecca, 
with  his  one  faithful  attendant  Zaid.  In  after  days 
he  told  in  the  Quran  how  Jinns  in  the  valley  of 
Nakhla  had  hearkened  to  the  message  which  men 
had  rejected.  There  remained  only  the  hope  of  success 
with  strangers,  since  he  had  so  little  honour  in  his  own 
country,  and  to  them,  but  especially  to  his  kinsfolk  in 
Medina,  Muhammad  now  turned  his  hopes.  The  annual 
pilgrimage  brought  opportunity,  of  which  he  was  quick 
to  avail  himself.  Just  as  Qas  of  Najran  had  fired  his 
own  boyish  spirit  in  earlier  years,  so  did  he  seek  to 
move  those  who  now  came  to  the  Feasts.  Medina  too 
was  ripe  for  his  purpose;  the  mutual  rivalry  of  the 
Aus  and  Khazraj,  and  that  of  both  with  the  strong 
Jewish  element,  made  the  situation  favourable  for 
Muhammad.  Neither  of  the  three  parties  could  well 
have  brooked  the  supremacy  of  one  of  the  others,  and 
a  stranger  of  commanding  ability  and  character  might 
well  aspire  to  rule  the  city.     Tradition  further  records 


PLEDGE  OF  AOABA  79 

that  the  Arabs  of  Medina,  "  polytheists  and  idolaters," 
had  been  threatened  by  the  Jews  with  the  speedy 
advent  of  a  Prophet,  under  whom  they  should  be 
smitten  even  as  the  children  of  Ad  and  Irani  had 
been.  And,  says  the  teller  of  the  tale,  "  we  had  grace 
from  God  to  listen  to  His  Messenger  when  he  came, 
but  the  Jews  (though  they  knew  him)  hardened  their 
hearts  :  and  therefore  they  were  slain." 

During  the  year  620,  Muhammad  was  in  much 
anxiety  as  to  what  turn  matters  would  take  in 
Medina,  and  whether  his  handful  of  converts  there 
would  prove  faithful.  If  not,  his  chances  of  success 
in  Arabia  would  be  lost  for  ever,  and  he  himself  forced 
to  exile  beyond  its  borders.  But  with  the  pilgrimage 
of  621  A.D.,  his  fears  were  dispelled  by  the  appearance 
of  twelve  men,  ten  of  Khazraj  and  two  of  Aus,  whom 
he  met  in  a  sheltered  glen  of  Mina.  They  avowed  their 
faith  in  Muhammad,  and  swore :  "  We  will  not  worship 
any  but  the  One  God ;  we  will  not  steal,  neither  will 
we  commit  adultery,  nor  kill  our  children ;  we  will  not 
slander  in  any  wise;  and  we  will  not  disobey  the 
Prophet  in  anything  that  is  right."  This  is  the  Pledge 
of  Women,  so  called  because  there  was  no  promise  to 
fight  for  the  Prophet  or  the  faith.  And  Muhammad 
answered  them  :  "  If  ye  fulfil  the  pledge,  paradise  shall 
be  your  reward.  He  that  shall  fail  in  ought  thereof, 
to  God  it  belongeth  to  punish  him  or  forgive."  The 
oath  is  known  also  as  the  First  Pledge  of  Aqaba,  the 
little  terraced  mound  where  it  was  given.  The  twelve 
returned  to  Medina ;  the  doctrine  was  zealously  preached 
from  house  to  house  with  wonderful  success,  and  in  the 
course  of  the  year  Muhammad,  at  his  converts'  desire, 
sent,  to  reinforce  them,  Musab,  one  of  the  returned 


8o         MUHAMMAD  AND   HIS  POWER 

exiles  of  Al)yssiiiia,  who  was  "  mighty  in  the  Quran," 
— probable  though  not  conclusive  evidence  that  niucli 
of  the  "  revelation  "  had  by  that  time  been  committed 
to  writing. 

During  the  year  621-C22  A.D.,  as  Muir  well  remarks, 
the  revelations  grow  in  firmness,  and  breathe  a  defiant 
and  aggressive  spirit.  Muhammad  felt  that  his  time 
of  power  was  approaching,  that  the  days  of  unequal 
struggle  against  the  powers  of  Mecca  were  nearly  at 
an  end,  and  he  poured  out  warning,  threats,  and  scorn. 
His  faith  was  justified;  for  when  the  pilgrimage 
season  again  came  round,  he  met  the  converts  of 
Medina  once  more  at  Aqaba,  not  now  twelve  men  only, 
but  seventy-five, — who  pledged  their  faith  to  him  in 
the  presence  of  his  uncle  Abbas,  who  (though  himself 
still  an  idolater)  adjured  them  not  to  draw  his  nephew 
away  from  the  safeguard  of  his  own  kindred  unless 
prepared  to  defend  him  to  the  death.  Then  in  the 
stillness  of  night,  in  low,  hurried  conference  for  fear 
of  their  watchful  foes,  hands  of  fealty  were  grasped, 
and  the  men  of  Medina  swore  to  defend  the  Prophet  as 
they  would  their  own  wives  and  children.  He  blessed 
their  resolution,  chose  from  among  them  twelve  to  be 
his  special  men  of  trust,  "  by  the  inspiration  of  God, 
through  his  angel  Gabriel,"  and  agreed  shortly  to 
follow  them  to  make  his  home  in  Medina.  Thus,  on 
the  night  of  31st  March  to  1st  April,  622  A.D.,  when 
was  taken  the  Second  Pledge  of  Aqaba,  Muhammad 
crossed  his  Rubicon,  and  prepared  to  follow  his  mighty 
career  in  Medina.  Silently,  as  they  had  come,  his 
followers  stole  away  to  rejoin  the  main  body  of 
pilgrims,  the  inquiries  of  the  suspicious  Quraish 
were   skilfully   baffled,  and   the   divine   connnand   to 


FLIGHT  FROM   MECCA  8i 

emigrate  went  forth.  The  men  of  Medina  got  back 
to  their  homes,  and  the  Faithful  from  Mecca  gradually 
followed  them,  till  of  the  men  there  remained  behind 
only  Ali,  Abu  Bakr,  and  the  Prophet  himself. 

The  Quraish  were  puzzled  and  alarmed,  and  at  last 
they  resolved  in  common  council  to  assassinate  the 
Prophet,  one  murderer  being  chosen  from  each  tribe, 
that  so  his  own  kinsmen  might  be  compelled  to  accept 
the  bloodwit.  This  proposal  is  said  to  have  been  made 
by  a  strange  sheikh,  really  Satan  in  human  form, 
and  (naturally)  Muhammad  was  warned  of  the  plot 
by  the  angel  Gabriel.  Abu  Bakr  had  brought  two 
fine  riding-camels  for  himself  and  the  Prophet,  and 
had  brought  them  into  perfect  condition ;  and  one 
evening  they  started  on  their  momentous  journey, 
gallant  Ali  staying  behind,  wrapped  in  Muhammad's 
well-known  mantle,  and  lying  on  his  bed  in  Abu 
Talib's  house  to  deceive  the  Quraish.  The  stratagem 
succeeded,  and  the  intending  murderers  went  away 
baffled.  Muhammad  and  Abu  Bakr  left  Mecca  on  the 
evening  of  Monday,  21st  June  622,  and  for  some  days 
lay  concealed  in  the  cave  of  Tora.  Food  and  intelli- 
gence was  brought  them  secretly  from  Mecca,  while 
Quraish  scouts  scoured  the  country  to  take  them,  and 
earn  the  price  offered  for  their  capture.  But  the 
seekers  were  foiled.  Tradition  loved  to  tell  how  doves 
(henceforward  safe  from  every  true  Muslim)  built  their 
nests,  and  spiders  wove  their  webs  before  the  cave ;  how 
a  tree  miraculously  sprang  up  at  its  mouth  ;  and  how, 
when  an  eager,  well-armed  pursuer  did  overtake  the 
fugitives,  his  camel  sank  deep  into  the  sand  until  he 
swore  not  to  betray  them.  It  is  even  told  that  Gabriel 
appeared  as  a  man,  and  lied  to  a  band  of  Quraish  to 
6 


82         MUHAMMAD  AND   HIS  POWER 

save  the  Prophet.  But  one  fine  trait  is  probably 
historical,  that  when  even  Abu  Bakr  trembled  at  the 
peril  to  "  them  two  left  alone,"  Muhammad  cheered 
him  with  the  assurance  that  the  Almighty  was  with 
them,  "the  third."  As  soon  as  the  danger  was  past, 
the  two  fugitives  made  their  way  by  stages,  as  rapid 
as  was  consistent  wdth  safety,  to  Medina.  They 
reached  the  village  of  Quba,  in  its  neighbourhood,  in 
about  ten  days,  were  there  heartily  welcomed,  and 
entered  the  city  itself  probably  on  Monday,  28th  June 
622.  This  Avas  the  Hijra  ("  Hegira  "),  the  Flight,  and 
henceforward  Muhammad  the  Prophet  of  Allah  be- 
came a  temporal  prince  also,  commissioned  to  add 
force  to  persuasion  in  extending  Islam.  For  nearly 
eleven  years  he  ruled  with  a  sway  most  absolute  over 
an  ever-increasing  nation,  and  at  his  death  he  left  his 
empire  vigorous  and  firmly  established  to  the  capable 
fostering  hands  of  Abu  Bakr. 

The  last  days  in  Mecca  are  marked  by  a  wonderful 
vision  of  the  night,  transformed  by  tradition  ascribed 
to  Muhammad  himself  into  an  actual  miraculous  jour- 
ney from  Mecca  to  "  the  further  temjDle  "  at  Jerusalem, 
and  an  ascent  through  the  circles  of  heaven  and  the 
companies  of  adoring  prophets  and  angels  into  the 
immediate  presence  of  God  Almighty,  far  beyond  where 
even  Gabriel  could  ascend.  There  he  received  from 
God  Himself  the  command  for  the  five  daily  prayers 
incumbent  on  every  Muslim,  there  he  saw  the 
"  wonders  of  his  Lord,"  and  a  vision  of  the  destinies 
of  men.  The  Christian  will  at  once  be  reminded  of  St. 
Paul's  mysterious  rapture,  and  the  tale  of  the  gradual 
lightening  of  the  burden  of  daily  prayers  from  fifty  to 
five  will  recall  Abraham  pleading  for  Sodom ;  but  he 


THE  "NIGHT  JOURNEY"  83 

will  wonder  and  grieve  at  the  blasphemy  which  places 
his  Lord  only  in  the  second  heaven,  far  beneath 
Abraham,  Moses,  and  others.  Muslim  doctors  are 
divided  as  to  whether  this  journey  was  material,  or 
only  spiritual,  the  reference  to  it  in  the  Quran  itself  is 
brief  and  obscure  (Chap.  xvii.  1);  but  the  great  mass 
of  the  "  faithful  "  believe  every  word  of  the  marvellous 
story  in  its  most  literal  sense. 

The  words  of  the  Quran  whicli  refer  to  the 
wonderful  journey,  be  it  in  the  spirit  only  or  in  the 
body,  are  these :  "  Celebrated  be  the  praises  of  Him 
who  took  His  servant  a  journey  by  night  from  the 
Sacred  Mosque  (the  Kaaba  at  Mecca)  to  the  Remote 
Mosque  (the  Temple  at  Jerusalem),  the  precinct  of 
which  We  have  blessed,  to  show  him  of  our  signs  ! 
verily,  He  both  hears  and  looks."  ^  The  event  accord- 
ingly is  known  as  either  the  Night  Journey  (Isra),  or 
the  Ascension  (Miraj),  the  latter  referring  to  the  suc- 
cessive stages  by  whicli  the  Prophet  mounts  through 
the  seven  heavens  to  pass  into  the  immediate  presence 
of  God,  far  beyond  the  limit  to  which  even  Gabriel  was 
allowed  to  soar.  The  account  of  the  journey  comes 
from  the  Prophet's  own  lips,  by  a  chain  of  faithful 
witnesses,  and  its  truth  was  expressly  vouched  for  by 
trusty  Abu  Bakr.  It  is  one,  the  greatest,  of  the  three 
miraculous  events  in  the  Prophet's  life, — the  others  being 
the  "  splitting  of  the  moon  in  twain,"  said  to  have  been 
vouchsafed  as  a  sign  to  the  unbelievers  of  Mecca,  and 
the  legion  of  angel  auxiliaries  that  came  to  help  the 
little  Muslim  host  at  the  battle  of  Badr. 

As  he  slept  at  night  in  the  house  of  Umm  Hani, 
sister  of  Ali,  he  was  roused  by  Gabriel,  with  whom  was 

^  Palmer. 


84         MUHAMMAD  AND   HIS  POWER 

the  Archangel  MichaeL  Again,  as  once  before  in  his 
childhood,  they  opened  his  breast,  washed  his  heart  in 
water  from  the  holy  well  Zemzem,  and  filled  it  with 
Faith  and  Wisdom.  They  then  mounted  him  on  a 
mysterious  animal  that  with  lightning  speed  trans- 
ported him  to  the  rock  at  Jerusalem  on  which  the 
Temple  stood,  and  where  to  this  day  is  shown  the  ring 
to  which  he  fastened  it,  and  the  mark  of  his  blessed 
foot  as  he  alighted.  But  as  he  passed  on  his  wonderful 
way,  the  angel  pointed  out  Medina  as  his  future  abode, 
and  bade  him  pray  as  he  went  by ;  he  also  resisted, 
through  divine  aid,  the  allurements  of  the  world  (pre- 
sented in  the  shape  of  a  beautiful  woman),  and  of 
Jewish  and  Christian  doctrine,  figured  in  the  guise 
of  a  bowl  of  wine  and  a  cup  of  water.  On  arrival  at 
the  temple  rock,  he  was  reverently  welcomed  by  a 
throng  of  angels  and  prophets ;  and  as  it  was  the  time 
of  midnight  prayer,  he  led  the  devotions  of  the  august 
assembly.  They  hailed  him  as  "  First,  and  last,  and 
assembler  1 " — first,  as  Gabriel  interpreted,  to  be  raised 
after  death  from  paradise  to  heaven,  first  to  be  per- 
mitted to  intercede  with  God  for  mankind ;  last  of  the 
prophets  sent  by  God  to  men ;  and  leader  on  the 
Judgment-day  of  those  who  shall  find  mercy  !  Then 
began  the  ascent  through  the  circles  of  heaven  to  the 
threshold  of  which  he  was  borne  on  the  wino^s  of  the 
Archangel. 

At  the  portal  of  the  first  heaven  the  angel  knocked, 
and  a  voice  from  within  inquired  who  sought 
admittance.  Gabriel  answered,  "  It  is  I,  Gabriel," 
But  again  the  voice  asked,  "  Is  there  any  with  thee  ?  " 
and  lie  said,  "  Muhammad."  Again  came  the  question, 
"  Hath  he  been  called  (to  the  ofiice  of  prophet)  ?  "  and 


THE   HEAVENLY  VISION  85 

he  answered,  "  Yes."  Then  was  the  gate  opened,  and 
they  entered ;  and  Adam  greeted  Muhammad  with  the 
words,  "  Welcome,  pious  son  and  pious  Prophet ! " 
Then  Muhammad  beheld,  and  saw  two  doors,  the  one 
on  Adam's  right  hand,  and  the  other  on  his  left.  As 
oft  as  he  looked  towards  the  first  he  laughed  with 
delight,  and  there  issued  therefrom  a  sweet  savour ;  but 
as  often  as  he  turned  to  the  other  he  wept,  and  from  it 
came  evil  odours ;  and  the  Prophet  marvelled,  and 
asked  of  Gabriel  what  this  should  mean ;  and  it  was 
told  him  that  the  one  door  led  to  Paradise,  and  the 
other  to  Hell,  and  that  the  Father  of  mankind  rejoiced 
over  those  who  were  saved,  and  wept  over  those  of  his 
children  who  were  lost.  Then  they  soared  upward  to 
the  second  heaven,  to  which  they  entered  after  the 
same  questions  and  answers  as  at  the  first ;  and  there 
were  two  young  men,  John  the  Baptist  and  Jesus  ;  and 
they  greeted  Muhammad,  "  Welcome,  pious  brother  and 
pious  Prophet !  "  Thence  they  passed  to  the  third 
heaven,  to  receive  the  same  welcome  from  Joseph, 
"  whose  beauty  excelled  that  of  all  other  creatures  as 
far  as  the  light  of  the  full  moon  surpasses  that  of  the 
stars  " ;  then  to  the  fourth,  where  Enoch  greeted  them ; 
and  the  fifth,  where  Aaron  welcomed  them  with  the 
same  words.  In  the  sixth  heaven,  Moses  welcomed 
him  as  his  brother  and  a  Prophet ;  but  he  wept  as  he 
soared  above  him, — not  for  envy  of  Muhammad's  glory 
surpassing  his  own,  but  to  think  that  so  few  of  his 
own  nation  were  appointed  to  Paradise.  From  the 
heaven  of  Moses,  the  Archangel  led  Muhammad  up  to 
the  seventh,  where  he  showed  him  Abraham,  "  his 
Father,"  who  bade  him,  "  Welcome,  pious  son  and  pious 
Prophet !  "    In  this  seventh  heaven  the  Prophet  beheld 


S6         MUHAMMAD  AND   HIS   POWER 

the  wondrous  Tree,  the  abode  of  Gabriel,  round  which 
fly  countless  myriads  oi*  angels ;  from  its  foot  spring 
the  two  rivers  of  Paradise,  and  the  two  great  rivers  of 
eartli — Euphrates  and  the  Nile  ;  and  "  the  light  of  God 
overspreads  the  whole  Tree."  There  too  was  the 
heavenly  Kaaba,  the  original  of  the  Meccan,  and 
round  it  went,  in  adorincr  circuit,  radiant  armies  of 
anofels ;  so  vast  indeed  is  their  number  that  the  same 
worshipping  host  never  returns  after  once  making  the 
mystic  round  ! 

Beyond  the  seventh  heaven  Gabriel  could  only  go 
with  the  Prophet,  and  that  by  special  permission,  as  far 
as  the  first  of  the  seventy  veils  of  dazzling  light  (each  five 
hundred  years' journey  from  the  next !)  that  shut  in  the 
Throne  of  God.  As  the  Prophet  passed  each  successive 
stage,  the  gracious  Voice  bade  him  "  Come  nearer  ! "  till 
at  last  he  entered  the  immediate  presence  of  God. 
There  he  was  endowed  with  perfect  wisdom  and  know- 
ledge, cheered  with  tlie  promise  that  all  who  received 
his  message  should  be  taken  into  Paradise,  and  com- 
manded to  lay  on  his  faithful  followers  the  duty  of 
praying  fifty  times  in  the  day.  The  Prophet  returned 
from  God's  Presence-Chamber  to  the  lower  heavens,  and 
told  Moses  of  the  duty  laid  upon  him.  But  by  the  old 
Lawgiver's  advice  he  time  after  time  ventured  back  to 
plead  with  his  Lord,  till  the  burden  of  the  daily 
prayers  was  reduced  to  five — the  perpetual  ordinance 
of  Islam. 

Then  with  lightning  speed  the  Prophet  was  returned 
to  his  chamber  at  Mecca,  and,  for  all  the  wondrous 
things  he  had  seen,  yet  was  the  bed  still  warm  when  he 
lay  down  again.^      And  in  the  morning  he  went  to  the 

^  ScolFers  of  Akbar's  court  made  merry  over  this  ! 


THE   HEAVENLY  VISION  87 

Kaaba,  and  told  the  wondrous  tale  to  a  sceptical 
audience ;  and  they  plied  him  with  questions  as  to  the 
temple  at  Jerusalem,  where  by  ordinary  journey  he 
never  had  been,  and  he  returned  true  and  convincing- 
answers,  "  for  the  angel  Gabriel  held  up  before  my  eyes, 
as  I  spoke,  a  true  model  of  the  Holy  Place." 

This   whole   wonderful    story   deserves   a   place   in 
every  account  of  Muhammad,  and  has  received  it  in 
most.     It  has  been  told  in  all  the  earliest  Lives  of  the 
Prophet,  and  is  embalmed  in  all  collections  of  Traditions 
as  a  veritable  record  from  his  own  lips.     Pious  fancy 
has   no   doubt   embellished  it,  and   many   marvellous 
details  have  here  been  omitted ;  but  all  commentators 
attach  the  story  to  the  words  already  quoted  from  the 
Quran,  and  the  mystical  journey  is  as  instructive  for 
our   view   of    Muhammad's    character    and    teaching, 
whether  it  be  meant  as  an  allegory  or  to  be  taken  as 
literally  true.     All  the  elements,  no  doubt,  might  be 
traced  to  rabbinical  or  apocryphal   Christian  sources, 
we   may   safely  take   it   that   the   sublime  glories  of 
Moses  "  speaking   face   to   face  with  God "  on  Mount 
Sinai,    and    of    the   Mount   of    Transfiguration,  were 
present  to  Muhammad's  mind ;    but  it  is  to  his  own 
immense    self-importance    that   we   must   charge    the 
strange  ordering  of  God's  messengers  and   prophets, 
and   his   degrading   of   the  Saviour  of  men — another 
mark   of   the   Antichrist.      Yet   throughout    there   is 
poverty  of  imagination ;  all  that  is  great  and  sublime 
is  borrowed  ;  and  it  is  but  a  poor  or  perverted  mind 
which  would  compare  the  story  with  tlie  grandeurs  and 
mysteries  of  the  Apocalypse  ! 


CHAPTEE    VII 

Muliammad  reaches  Medina — Religious  and  Political  Institutions 
— "Refugees"  and  "Helpers":  Bond  of  Brotlierliood — The 
Jews — Attacks  on  Meccan  Commerce — Battle  of  Badr  :  Its 
Critical  Importance — Treatment  of  the  Captives — Joy  in 
Medina — Reprisals  against  Foes  in  Medina — Exile  of  Jews — 
Marriage  of  Fatima  to  Ali — Defeat  of  Muhammad  at  Uhud — 
The  Prophet  wounded — Klialid — Hamza  slain — The  Funeral 
Hymn — Assassinations — Exile  of  more  Jews. 

The  first  news  of  Muhammad's  comino^  to  Medina  was 
given  to  his  anxious  disciples  by  a  Jewish  watcher, 
who  proclaimed  the  glad  news  on  the  evening  of 
Monday,  28th  June  622  a.d.  (eight  days  after  the 
exiles  had  left  Mecca) ;  for  the  Jews,  said  Muhammad 
afterwards,  "knew  liim  better  than  their  own 
children."  The  news  quickly  spread,  his  adherents 
hurried  forth  to  welcome  him  and  Abu  Bakr,  and 
for  a  night  or  two  he  rested  in  Quba,  and  then  entered 
Yathrib  (as  it  then  was), — Medina,  "  the  City,"  as  it 
has  ever  since  been.  In  his  entry  he  did  not  disdain 
a  little  display  quite  in  accordance  with  Arab  modes 
of  thought ;  for  when  his  followers  would  have  stopped 
his  camel,  the  famous  Al  Qaswa,  and  made  it  kneel, 
Muhammad  checked  them,  and  wdien  the  camel  of  her 
own  accord  stopped,  all  accepted  the  choice  as  matter 
of  divine  guidance,  and  possible  jealousies  were  avoided. 
This  was  Friday,  2nd  July,  and  on  his  marcli  from 

88 


FIRST  STEPS  TO  POWER  89 

Quba,  Muhammad  held  Jiis  first  public  service  and 
preaching  amid  one  hundred  converts,  and  Friday  was 
fixed  as  the  day  of  public  prayer  for  all  Islam.  Where 
the  camel  stopped  was  an  open  space,  and  that  ground 
Muhammad  purchased  at  its  full  value  from  two 
orphan  lads ;  there  he  established  his  house,  and  hard 
by  he  built  later  the  sacred  Mosque  of  Medina;  and 
there  his  body  was  ten  years  later  laid  to  its  final 
rest. 

Muhammad's  power  was  spiritual  first  and  temporal 
afterwards ;  he  was  the  founder  of  a  new  religion  before 
he  became  the  head  of  a  new  earthly  empire, — and 
accordingly  he  gave  his  care  to  the  Church  before  the 
State ;  but  political  soon  followed  religious  institutions. 
The  Mosque  was  founded,  the  five  daily  prayers  ap- 
pointed, and  Friday  chosen  for  the  weekly  religious 
assembly,  when  all  the  faithful  came  together  to  follow 
the  Prophet  in  prayer  and  to  hear  from  his  lips  the 
words  of  exhortation.  A  special  call  to  prayer  was 
instituted, — that  by  the  human  voice,  instead  of  by 
Jewish  trumpet  or  Christian  bell.  The  happy  inspira- 
tion was  due  to  Omar,  and  the  weird  music  of  the 
Muazzin's  voice  from  myriads  of  minarets  still  fioats  in 
the  air  in  all  the  countries  of  Islam,  with  unwearied 
call  repeating :  "  God  is  most  great !  I  witness  that 
there  is  no  god  but  God,  and  Muhammad  is  the  Prophet 
of  God  !  Come  to  prayer  !  come  to  salvation  !  God  is 
most  great !  There  is  no  god  but  God " ;  with  the 
addition,  at  dawn, — "  Prayer  is  better  than  sleep  ! " 
and  for  emphasis  each  phrase  is  twice  or  thrice  re- 
peated. These  were  the  pillars  of  religious  practice, 
to  which  were  added  later  the  month's  fast  in 
Ramadhan,     and     the     solemn     feasts,     the     Qiblah 


90         MUHAMMAD  AND   HIS  POWER 

(direction  to  which  the  face  should  be  turned  when 
pra3ano'),  and  the  Greater  and  Lesser  Pilgrimage. 
But  Muhammad,  an  Arab  in  every  fibre  of  his  being, 
knew  well  the  strength  and  the  weakness  of  his 
people's  character,  and  set  liimself  without  delay  to 
make  use  of  both  to  build  up  and  secure  his  power 
on  the  political  side  as  well. 

Envy  is  the  curse  of  the  Arab,  and  tribal  jealousies 
had  hitherto  been  fatal  to  Arab  power.  Muhammad, 
following  an  old  custom,  established  "  brotherhood  "  of 
the  closest  kind  between  his  followers  from  Mecca 
and  the  converts  of  Medina,  one  of  each  being  made 
"brothers,"  a  tie  which  was  to  supersede  those  of 
kindred,  each  even  inheriting  from  the  other, — which 
arrangement  was  not  abrogated  till  after  the  battle 
of  Badr  two  years  later.  This  measure  had  the  double 
result  of  preventing  jealousy  between  "  Refugees " 
(from  Mecca)  and  "  Helpers "  (Ansdr)  of  Medina,  but 
also  of  effacing  that  between  Muslims  of  the  rival 
tribes  Aus  and  Khazraj,  very  lately  at  deadly  feud. 
With  the  Jews,  too,  Muhammad  made  a  treaty  of 
close  alliance,  offensive  and  defensive.  Each  party 
was  to  keep  its  own  religion  without  interference 
from  the  other,  they  were  to  have  equal  rights,  and 
to  fight  to  the  uttermost  for  one  another:  it  was 
added,  "  No  believer  shall  be  put  to  death  for  slaying 
an  infidel,  nor  shall  any  infidel  be  upheld  against  a 
believer."  All  discordant  elements  were  thus  for  the 
time  united,  and  the  Prophet's  power  grew  apace.  Pie 
now  turned  his  thoughts  to  offensive  operations  against 
Mecca  that  had  rejected  him,  and  began  welding  his 
forces  together  for  the  great  struggle  which  he  had 
perhaps  long  meditated,     That  the  strife  was  begun  by 


FIRST   HOSTILITIES  91 

him  is  clear,  for  Mecca,  relieved  by  his  departure,  took 
no  hostile  steps,  and  allowed  his  family  and  those  of 
his  followers  to  leave  without  molestation.  It  is  easy 
to  understand  how  Hamza  and  Omar,  Ali,  Zaid,  and 
others,  fiery  Arabs  all  of  them,  would  fall  in  with 
plans  of  revenge,  and  how  gladly  they  would  hail  the 
prospect  of  at  once  punishing  their  former  oppressors 
and  enriching  themselves. 

The  commerce  of  Mecca  depended  on  the  half-yearly 
caravans,  of  which  the  more  important  was  that  to 
Syria,  passing  along  the  Red  Sea  shore  northward  at 
no  great  distance  from  Medina.  Before  the  end  of  the 
year  of  the  Flight,  a  small  party  was  sent  out  under 
Hamza  to  cut  oft'  the  caravan  on  its  way  north,  but  the 
expedition  failed.  A  second  and  a  third  band  was  sent 
out,  and  to  the  leader  of  each  Muhammad  gave  a  white 
standard ;  the  Prophet  himself  led  two  equally  abortive 
forays,  to  Abwa  and  Bairat  respectively ;  but  it  was 
not  till  November  623  a.d.  that  the  first  blood  was 
shed  by  Muslims  in  battle,  when  a  small  force  under 
Abdallah  broke,  at  Nakhla,  the  truce  of  the  sacred 
month  Rajab,  rather  than  let  their  prey  escape. 
When  the  sacrilegious  act  was  reported  to  Muhammad, 
he,  after  some  hesitation,  declared  the  sanction  of 
heaven  for  the  deed :  "it  is  a  less  evil  to  break  the 
sacred  truce  than  to  expel  God's  Prophet " ;  and 
Paradise  was  promised  to  such  as  should  die  fighting 
for  the  Faith.  Thus,  in  the  end  of  623  a.d.,  was 
promulgated  the  law  of  Jihad  or  Holy  War,  hence- 
forward such  a  prominent  feature  of  the  new  religion. 

The  sword  once  unsheathed  was  not  long  to  remain 
idle.  The  Syrian  caravan  had  passed  northward  un- 
harmed in  the  autumn,  under  the  wary  guidance  of 


92         MUHAMMAD  AND   HIS   POWER 

Abu  Sufiyan,  but  its  return  brought  about  the  critical 
battle  of  Baclr, — which  is  to  Muslim  history  all  and 
more  than  all  that  Hastings  means  in  the  history  of 
England.  The  caravan  was  returning,  and  as  usual 
every  Meccan  who  could  afford  it  had  some  share  in 
the  venture.  Muhammad  himself  led  out  his  forces  to 
cut  it  off.  The  little  army  consisted  of  300  men,  it 
started  from  Medina  on  Sunday,  12th  Ramadhan, 
8th  January  624  A.D.,  and  marched  to  Badr,  two  days 
out  from  Medina.  Hitherto  the  men  of  Medina  were 
pledged  only  to  defend  Muhammad,  but  now  with  one 
voice  they  vowed  to  aid  him  no  less  in  attack,  and  the 
fusion  of  his  followers  was  complete.  Abu  Sufij^an, 
having  news  of  the  attack  intended,  sent  to  Mecca  an 
urgent  appeal  for  help ;  and  the  citizens  marched  out, 
nearly  a  thousand  strong,  to  his  aid.  But  by  skilful 
leading  the  caravan  escaped  its  pursuers,  and  the 
relieving  army  hesitated  whether  to  march  on  against 
Muhammad  or  to  return.  Strong  appeals  were  made 
on  both  sides  ;  great  reluctance  was  shown  to  embitter 
the  quarrel ;  but  the  voices  of  those  prevailed  whose 
kindred  had  already  fallen,  and  the  army  set  forward. 

On  Muhammad's  side  there  was  no  feelino^  of  com- 
punction  or  regret.  He  knew  the  fiery  courage  of  his 
followers,  he  counted  perhaps  on  divided  counsels 
among  his  foes,  and  he  made  ready  with  stern  confi- 
dence for  the  struggle,  himself  setting  the  battle  in 
order.  On  this,  as  on  all  occasions,  he  showed  o^reat 
qualities  as  a  commander.  He  had  the  first  of  these 
in  the  magic  power  he  exercised  over  his  troops,  their 
absolute  and  unquestioning  faith  in  and  devotion  to 
]iim.  The  field  of  battle  is  a  plain,  with  steep  hills  on 
tlie  north  and  east,  and   contained   several    wells  of 


BATTLE  OF  BADR  93 

water.  Acting  on  friendly  advice,  Muhammad  seized 
the  most  advanced  of  these,  which  was  also  the  best, 
and  destroyed  the  others.  This  was  a  great  advantage, 
and  the  Quraish  suffered  much  loss  in  their  attempts 
to  get  water.  Night  fell,  and  the  Prophet's  army 
enjoyed  quiet  rest,  while  he  was  cheered  in  his  sleep 
by  visions  of  success  ;  but  the  enemy  were  dismayed  by 
portents  and  prophecies  of  evil.  When  morning  broke 
the  forces  of  Islam  were  arrayed  for  battle,  with  its 
three  white  standards  displayed,  and  their  foes  ad- 
vanced to  the  attack.  But  the  latter,  marching  from 
the  west,  were  dazzled  by  the  rising  sun,  and  moved 
heavily  over  sand  that  had  been  sodden  by  rain.  The 
great  superiority  in  numbers,  however,  made  the 
position  critical,  and  Muhammad  retired  to  strengthen 
himself  with  fervent  prayer,  pleading  with  God  to 
fight  with  him  against  the  idolaters,  and  not  to  suffer 
His  truth  to  be  overborne;  and  stout  Abu  Bakr 
strengthened  his  heart  with  assurance  that  his  prayer 
would  be  heard. 

The  Quraish  attacked, — but  the  general  engagement 
was  preceded  by  several  single  combats.  Hamza,  Ali, 
and  Ubaida,  especially  distinguished  themselves,  and 
carried  the  omen  of  victory  for  their  side.  Muhammad 
probably  did  only  his  part  as  commander,  though  there 
is  no  ground  for  charging  him  (as  Sprenger  does)  with 
personal  cowardice;  while  the  spirit  he  infused  into 
his  men  is  witnessed  by  the  fiery  valour  of  Umair,  a 
lad  of  sixteen,  who  flung  away  some  dates  he  was 
eating,  crying  out,  "  these  keep  me  back  from  Paradise," 
cast  himself  into  the  foemen's  ranks,  and  died  bravely 
fighting. 

It  was  a  stormy  winter  day,  and  Muhammad  trans- 


94         MUHAMMAD  AND   HIS  POWER 

formed  the  fierce  blasts  that  swept  across  tlie  valley 
into  a  legion  of  angels  under  Gabriel  and  Michael, 
fighting  for  the  believers,  —  as  the  "  great  Twin 
Bretliren "  had  fought  for  Rome  at  Lake  Regillus ! 
Stories  were  told  of  how  they  had  even  made  prisoners 
for  the  Muslims.  The  battle  raged  fiercely,  but  at  last 
the  hery  valour  of  the  Muslims  prevailed ;  as  the  foe 
wavered,  Muhammad  stooped,  threw  a  handful  of 
pebbles  towards  them,  and  cried,  "  Confusion  seize  their 
faces  ! "  They  turned  to  flee,  defeat  was  turned  to  rout ; 
the  Quraish  cast  away  their  arms,  and  abandoned  their 
camp  and  baggage ;  and  Muhammad  had  won  his  first 
great  victory.  Of  his  men  only  fourteen  had  fallen,  of 
whom  eight  were  Refugees ;  the  Quraish  lost  forty-nine 
killed,  and  a  like  number  wounded.  Among  the  slain 
were  many  of  the  chief  men  of  Mecca,  and  Muhammad 
showed  fierce  exultation  when  there  was  brouo^ht  to 
him  the  head  of  his  bitter  foe,  his  uncle,  Abu  Jahl. 

Some  few  of  the  prisoners  were  slain  in  cold  blood, 
but  the  majority  were  held  to  ransom.  Each  man  was 
allowed  to  retain  the  spoil  of  any  he  had  himself  slain ; 
but  the  general  booty  was  divided  on  the  principle  that 
one-fifth  should  be  at  the  Prophet's  disposal  for  per- 
sonal and  public  purposes,  and  the  remainder  divided 
among  the  troops, — all  sharing  equally,  whether  they 
had  fought  in  the  front  of  battle  or  had  stayed  to 
guard  the  camp.  In  this  matter  also  Jewish  precedent 
was  followed.  The  enemy's  dead  were  buried  in  a 
trench  on  the  field,  and  as  they  were  cast  into  the 
common  grave,  Muhammad  addressed  the  chief  by 
name  :  "  Have  ye  now  found  the  promise  of  your  Lord 
to  come  true  ?  Woe  to  you,  who  rejected  me,  your 
Prophet !    Veril}^,  mj^  Lord's  promise  to  me  hath  been 


RESULTS  OF  THE  VICTORY  95 

made  good!"     And   he  told  his  wondering  followers 
that  truly  the  dead  heard  his  words. 

Then  he  returned  to  Medina ;  poured  into  mourning 
hearts  the  balm  of  comfortable  words ;  yet  on  the  way 
he  gratified  private  revenge  by  ordering  two  of  his 
captives,  Nadhr  and  Uqba,  to  be  put  to  death.  The 
fierce  spirit  of  Islam  is  shown  by  the  reply  of  the 
captor  to  an  appeal  for  mercy,  "  Islam  has  severed  all 
bonds";  and  Muhammad  himself  answered  Uqba,  who 
pleaded  for  his  little  daughter,  "Hell-fire  will  care 
for  her!" 

The  Quraish  went  back  in  mourning  to  Mecca,  but 
their  fierce  spirit  for  long  refused  to  wail  for  the  dead 
that  had  fallen,  or  to  seek  to  ransom  the  captives. 
The  women  were  specially  bitter,  and  stirred  the  men 
to  revenge, — which  was  taken  amply  in  the  following 
year  at  Uhud ;  but  the  moral  effect  of  the  victory  at 
Badr  was  never  effaced,  and  from  it  dates  Muhammad's 
triumphant  career.  The  captives  that  were  spared 
were  well  and  generously  treated ;  those  who  could 
not  pay  a  money-ransom  were  allowed  to  redeem 
themselves  by  teaching  boys  of  Medina  to  write ; 
several  embraced  Islam,  and  the  well-judged  clemency 
greatly  advanced  the  cause  of  the  new  Faith.  But 
this  mercy  was  mainly  due  to  the  mild  counsels  of 
Abu  Bakr,  for  Muhammad  had  published  the  "  revela- 
tion "  (Q.  viii.  70),  "  It  is  not  for  the  Prophet  to  take 
prisoners,  or  to  accept  ransom :  it  is  at  his  choice  to 
slay  them  if  he  will." 

The  news  of  the  great  victory  was  carried  by  Zaid 
to  Medina,  and  the  very  children  triumphed  over  the 
death  of  Abu  Jahl.  To  Muhammad,  however,  the  joy 
of  victory  was  dimmed  by  the  news  which  met  liim 


96         MUHAMMAD  AND   HIS  POWER 

on  his  return,  of  the  death,  during  his  absence,  of  his 
daughter  Rukaya,  wife  of  Uthnian. 

Freed  by  the  defeat  of  the  Meccan  army  from  foreign 
attack,  Muhammad  set  himself  to  remove  from  his 
path  stumbling-blocks  in  Medina.  Chief  among  these 
were  the  strong  Jewish  tribes,  who  formed  (as  they 
have  ever  done)  a  nationality  apart.  The  causes  of 
strife  lay  on  the  surface;  each  party  was  bitterly 
disappointed  with  the  other ;  Muhammad  had  hoped 
to  be  accepted  by  the  Jews  as  the  great  Prophet,  the 
Messiah  foretold  in  their  law, — and  the  Jews  hoped, 
from  his  declared  aim  to  "  restore  the  religion  of 
Abraham,"  that  he  would  join  their  faith  and  serve 
their  ambition.  Neither  would  yield  :  the  Jews  would 
own  no  prophet  that  came  not  of  Abraham's  seed,  and 
Muhammad  w^ould  not  subordinate  his  claims  to  any. 
He  proceeded  therefore  to  o]Den  war. 

The  first  victim  was  a  woman,  a  poetess,  Asma, 
daughter  of  Marwan.  She  was  an  idolater,  and  had 
roused  Muhammad's  hatred  by  verses  attacking  him 
and  denouncing  her  people's  folly  for  trusting  him.  A 
blind  man,  Urn  air,  with  Muhammad's  knowledge, 
stabbed  her  to  death  at  night  with  every  circumstance 
of  savagery,  and  the  Prophet  blessed  him  for  the 
service  at  public  prayer  next  day.  The  next  victim 
was  an  aged  Jew  proselyte,  also  guilty  of  writing 
poetry  against  Muhammad :  he  too  was  foully  mur- 
dered,— and  terror  spread  among  the  "  Disaftected." 

These  two  murders  w^ere  followed  by  a  regular  attack 
on  one  of  the  three  Jewish  tribes,  the  Qainuqaa.  It 
was  alleged  against  the  Jews  generally  that  they 
strove  covertly  to  sow  dissension  among  the  Muslims, 
but  the  special  pretext  for  the  attack   was  insult  in 


FIRST  RUPTURE  WITH   THE  JEWS     97 

their  bazar  (they  were  goldsmiths)  to  a  MusHm  girl,  in 
revenge  for  wliicli  a  Jew  was  slain,  and  his  murderer 
in  retaliation.  By  treaty  Muhammad  was  bound  to 
judicial  inquiry;  but  instead  he  went  forth  with  a 
strong  following  to  the  Jewish  settlement,  angrily  sum- 
moned them  to  submit  to  him  as  their  Prophet,  and,  on 
their  refusal,  raised  tlie  great  white  banner,  and  laid 
siege  to  them.  After  fifteen  days  of  close  investment, 
no  help  from  any  quarter  appearing,  they  surrendered 
at  discretion,  and  were  led  forth  bound  for  execution. 
The  strong  remonstrance  of  Abdallah,  son  of  Ubai,  the 
Khazraj  chief,  whom  Muhammad  dared  not  refuse, 
prevailed  to  save  them  from  death.  They  were  piti- 
lessly driven  into  exile,  and  found  their  way  with 
much  hardship  to  a  new  home  among  their  kinsfolk  in 
Syria ;  their  lands  and  wealth  fell  to  the  conqueror ; 
and  another  instance  was  given  that  "  Islam  had  broken 
all  ties." 

The  following  months  were  only  disturbed  by  minor 
expeditions  by  and  against  the  Quraish.  Abu  Sufiyan 
made  a  successful  foray,  and  Zaid  retaliated  by  cutting 
off  and  plundering  at  Karada,  in  Najd,  a  rich  Meccan 
caravan.  But  before  the  third  year  after  the  Flight 
closed,  Muhammad  once  more  stained  his  fame  by  a 
peculiarly  treaclierous  murder,  again  of  a  Jew  and  a 
poet,  Ashraf,  son  of  Kab, — whose  death  he  compassed 
by  means  of  his  own  foster-brother.  The  murderer 
fiercely  retorted,  when  challenged  by  his  own  brother, 
that  he  would  slay  him  if  the  Prophet  bade  him; 
and,  says  the  story,  the  brother  and  all  his  house 
embraced  Islam ! 

The  year  closed  with  the  Prophet  taking  a  third 
wife,  Hafsa,  daughter  of  Omar,  and  giving  in  marriage 
7 


98         MUHAMMAD  AND   HIS  POWER 

to  Ali  his  daughter  Fatima,  from  which  union  descends 
the  numerous  stock  of  the  Sayyids,  the  nobility  of 
Islam.  None  was  more  worthy  than  Ali,  brave,  gener- 
ous, devoted;  yet  in  his  character  was  a  strain  of 
weakness  and  indecision  that  was  to  prove  disastrous 
to  himself,  and  fatal  also  to  his  sons,  Hasan  and  Husain, 
the  martyred  Imams,  objects  of  the  idolatrous  venera- 
tion of  the  great  Schism.  By  his  own  marriage  to 
Hafsa,  Muhammad  allied  himself  as  closely  to  Omar  as 
he  already  was  to  Abu  Bakr ;  there  continued  rivalry 
between  the  two  wives,  but  Ayesha's  position  was 
never  seriously  in  danger  but  once. 

In  the  following  year  (a.h.  3),  just  a  twelvemonth 
after  the  victory  of  Badr,  Muhammad  met  with  a  severe 
defeat  at  Uhud.  The  Quraish  had  ever  since  their 
disaster  at  Badr  been  making  ready  to  avenge  it.  The 
profits  of  the  escaped  caravan  had  been  by  unanimous 
vote  of  the  citizens  devoted  to  equipping  a  new  army, 
and  in  the  beginning  of  625  A.D.  a  large  force  of 
Meccans  and  their  allies  (3000  men,  of  whom  700  were 
mail-clad  warriors)  set  out  for  Medina.  Muhammad's 
uncle.  Abbas,  contrived  to  send  him  timely  warning  of 
the  threatened  attack,  and  every  possible  eftbrt  was 
made  to  meet  it.  The  chief  women  of  Mecca,  fiercer 
even  than  the  men,  went  with  the  troops,  and  Hind, 
wife  of  Abu  Sufiyan,  is  infamous  in  Muslim  history 
for  her  savage  thirst  for  vengeance  against  Hamza. 
The  invaders  encamped,  after  ten  days'  march,  in  the 
rich  plain  of  Uhud,  five  miles  from  Medina,  from  which 
they  were  separated  by  some  rocky  ridges,  and  ravaged 
the  country  round,  destroying  crops  and  fruit-trees, 
with  the  object  of  drawing  the  enemy  into  the  open 
and  overwhelming  them. 


BATTLE  OF  UHUD  99 

The  public  assembly  was  convened  in  the  Mosque, 
and  an  informal  council  of  war  held.  Muhammad 
advised,  and  Abdallah  ibn  Ubai  agreed,  that  the  women 
and  children  should  be  broup'ht  from  the  villasfes 
within  the  city  walls,  and  the  enemy  left  to  exhaust 
themselves  without  risking  a  battle.  But  the  rasher 
counsels  of  more  fiery  spirits  prevailed;  Muhammad 
yielded,  delivered  a  stirring  address  to  his  followers, 
gave  the  sacred  banners,  and  himself  led  forth  the 
host.  As  he  advanced  he  saw  Abdallah's  Jewish  allies 
coming  up,  and  ordered  them  back,  "  for  ye  shall  not 
seek  help  of  idolaters  against  idolaters."  In  view  of 
subsequent  events  this  story  may  well  be  an  invention. 

The  battle  was  fought  on  Saturday,  11th  January, 
and  the  odds  against  Muhammad,  already  very  great, 
were  much  increased  by  the  desertion  of  Abdallah  with 
his  300  men, — leaving  only  700  to  face  four  times  their 
number.  Though  the  enemy  was  full  in  sight,  the 
usual  morning  prayer  was  offered,  and  then  the 
Prophet  again  showed  his  skill  as  a  general.  He  drew 
up  his  little  army  with  their  rear  protected  by  the 
steep  rocks  of  Uhud,  and  guarded  a  gap  by  which  he 
might  be  outflanked  with  a  picked  body  of  archers, — 
to  whom  he  gave  positive  orders  to  hold  the  position 
whatever  the  course  of  the  main  engagement ;  he  then 
awaited  the  attack.  The  first  to  fall  was  Talha,  who 
bore  the  Quraish  standard,  slain  by  Ali ;  Muhammad 
cried  aloud,  "  Great  is  the  Lord  ! "  ^  and  the  whole  army 
took  up  the  shout  of  triumph.  Uthman  caught  the 
standard  from  his  dying  brother's  hand,  while  women 
clashed  their  timbrels  and  sang  songs  of  encourage- 
ment, but  he  too  fell  beneath  the  sword  of  Hamza ; 

1  AlldJm  Akhar,  the  Takbir. 


100      MUHAMMAD  AND   HIS  POWER 

nor  did  the  deadly  fight  for  tlie  standard  cease  till  the 
whole  family  of  Talha,  two  brothers  and  three  sons, 
were  laid  low. 

Then  the  battle  became  general.  Ali,  Hamza,  Dujana, 
— armed  with  a  sword  by  Muhammad  himself, — 
Zubair,  and  others,  conspicuous  by  ostrich  plume  or  gay 
feather,  did  mighty  deeds  of  valour ;  the  archer-band 
kept  the  Meccan  horse  at  bay ;  and  it  seemed  as  if  the 
smaller  force  might  even  win  the  fight.  But  the  advan- 
tage was  too  eagerly  pressed,  a  party  fell  to  plundering 
ere  the  victory  was  secure,  the  flanking  body  of  archers 
joined  in  the  premature  pillage,  Khalid,  the  great 
Meccan  general  (afterwards  a  tower  of  strength  to 
Islam),  swooped  down  with  his  cavalry  on  Muhammad's 
left  and  rear,  and  the  army  of  the  Prophet  was  put  to 
rout.  Then  fell  Musab,  who  bore  his  standard ;  gallant 
Hamza  was  thrust  through  with  a  javelin  ;  and 
Muhammad  himself  was  badly  wounded  in  the  face. 
Ho  tried  in  vain  to  stem  the  flight,  and  owed  his  life 
to  the  valour  and  devotion  of  a  handful  of  his  followers. 
Stunned  and  wounded  he  was  hurried  to  a  place  of 
safety,  where  the  remnant  of  his  army  gathered  round 
him.  The  rumour  that  he  was  slain  spread  dismay 
among  his  followers,  and  his  foes  triumphed.  For- 
tunately the  false  report  caused  the  pursuit  to  slacken, 
while  the  field  was  searched  for  the  Prophet's  body; 
meanwhile  the  wound  was  dressed,  and  Muhammad 
solemnly  cursed  his  sacrilegious  foes.  A  boastful 
challenge  by  Abu  Sufiyan,  answered  by  Omar,  showed 
that  Muhammad,  Abu  Bakr,  and  he  still  lived ;  the 
Quraish  chief's  shout  of  triumph  was  met  by  a  fervent 
cry  of  confidence  in  God  ;  and  the  Meccan  army  with- 
drew, making  a  tryst  for  a  second  battle  at  Badr  a 


DEFEAT  OF  MUHAMMAD  loi 

year  later.  Seventy-four  of  Muhammad's  men  lay 
dead  upon  the  field,  among  them  gallant  Hamza,  whose 
dead  body  Hind,  wife  of  Abu  Sufiyan,  savagely  muti- 
lated, and  the  brave  standard-bearer,  Musab ;  but  the 
enemy  had  lost  twenty  only. 

Medina  was  a  city  of  mourning  when  the  news  came. 
The  women  hurried  forth  to  tend  the  wounded  and  to 
weep  for  the  dead ;  the  malcontents  spoke  hard  things 
of  Muhammad,  and  the  faith  of  his  followers  was  sorely 
tried  by  the  defeat.  But  he  rose  against  the  tide  of 
reproach,  pronounced  blessings  over  the  martyrs  who 
had  died  for  their  faith,  and  chiefly  over  Hamza,  "  the 
Lion  of  God  and  the  Lion  of  His  Apostle,"  now  in  bliss 
in  the  highest  Paradise.  He  encouraged  his  followers  at 
the  weekly  prayer  with  some  of  the  finest  and  most 
impassioned  utterances  to  be  found  in  the  Quran  : — 

"  We  will  surely  cast  terror  into  the  hearts  of  the 
infidels,  for  presumptuously  joining  others  with  God  ! 
Their  resting-place  shall  be  the  fire, — a  woeful  abode 
for  transgressors ! 

"  And  some  of  you  chose  the  present  life,  and  some 
the  life  to  come ;  and  He  caused  you  to  flee  before  your 
foes,  that  He  might  prove  you ! 

"  Think  not  at  all  that  they  are  dead,  who  were  slain 
in  the  way  of  the  Lord.  Nay,  they  live  in  the  presence 
of  their  Lord,  rejoicing  in  His  bounty,  and  for  those 
who  shall  follow  in  their  steps.  No  terror  afliicts 
them,  neither  are  they  grieved." 

And  in  reference  to  his  own  reported  death,  he 
uttered  the  solemn  words,  forgotten  (it  would  seem), 
when  he  was  taken  from  his  people,  till  Abu  Bakr 
recalled  them: — 

"Muhammad  is  no  more  than  an  apostle,  as  other 


102       MUHAMMAD  AND   HIS  POWER 

apostles  that  have  gone  before  him  What !  if  he 
should  die  or  be  killed,  must  ye  needs  turn  back  upon 
your  heels  ?  He  that  turneth  back  in  no  wise  injureth 
God ;  but  God  will  reward  the  thankful." 

With  such  words  did  Muhammad  cheer  and  bind  up 
the  hearts  of  his  followers,  as  they  hung  upon  his  lips, 
while  he  spoke  leaning  on  the  palm-tree  pillar  in  the 
great  Mosque.  Their  faith  in  him  was  absolute,  and 
the  spirit  of  martyrdom  was  theirs,  wherewith  to  crush 
down  every  doubt  and  fear,  to  triumph  even  in  seeming 
defeat.  But,  as  Muhammad  had  shown  himself  a  bold 
and  skilful  commander  in  the  field,  so  now  as  soon  as  the 
first  outburst  of  grief  was  past,  he  gathered  a  handful  of 
troops  and  hung  on  the  rear  of  his  victorious  foes.  He 
even  captured  and  put  to  death  two  of  those  who 
fought  against  him,  one  of  whom  had  already  once 
been  his  prisoner,  and  whom  he  sentenced  with  the 
stern  words,  "Verily  thou  sliall  not  say,  I  deceived 
the  Prophet  twice."  It  was  after  the  battle  of  Uhud 
that  Muhammad  promulgated  the  important  law  under 
which  a  widow  and  daughter  succeed,  in  the  absence  of 
male  issue,  to  the  family  inheritance,  a  brother  taking 
only  a  small  share  instead  of  (as  formerly)  the  whole. 
The  Christian  reader  will  recall  the  decree  of  Moses  in 
the  case  of  the  daughters  of  Zelophehad. 

The  victory  of  Uhud,  though  the  Meccans  did  not 
follow  it  up,  encouraged  other  foes.  Within  a  few 
months  Muhammad  defeated  the  Bani  Asad,  a  powerful 
tribe  in  Najd,  from  whom  he  took  rich  booty,  and  fore- 
stalled the  attack  by  the  Bani  Lahyan  by  procuring 
the  assassination  of  tlieir  chief.  The  assassin  was  not 
only  sent  out  by  Muhammad,  but  was  specially  blessed 
by  him  when  he  returned  with  his  victim's  head.    Such 


JEWISH   TRIBE   EXILED  103 

acts  provoked  retaliation,  and  not  long  after  six  Mus- 
lims were  overpowered  while  on  a  peaceful  mission, 
and  two  of  them  cruelly  put  to  death.  They  died 
bravely,  but  not  without  bitterly  cursing  their  mur- 
derers, and  tradition  tells  that  the  curse  was  fulfilled 
to  the  letter.  In  the  same  year  (a.h.  4)  a  much  larger 
party,  forty  or  seventy  men,  were  treacherously  mur- 
dered by  another  tribe  of  Najd,  the  Bani  Amir ;  and  in 
retaliation,  two  of  the  tribe,  returning  from  Medina 
under  a  safe  conduct,  were  murdered, — and  for  them 
Muhammad  honourably  paid  the  bloodwit.  But  for 
his  own,  foully  slain,  he  bitterly  cursed  the  treacherous 
clans  and  all  their  kindred,  and  brought  as  from  the 
dead  themselves  a  message :  "  Say  to  our  people  that 
we  have  met  our  Lord.  He  with  us  is  well  pleased,  and 
we  with  Him." 

But  the  tale  of  bloodshed  was  not  complete.  The 
Bani  Amir  were  confederate  with  the  Jewish  tribe  of 
Nazlr,  and  to  them  the  Prophet  applied  for  help  in  the 
blood-money.  But  ere  a  reply  could  be  given  he 
abruptly  departed,  and  sent  his  command  that  they 
should  go  into  exile.  Abdallah  ibn  Ubai  tried  in  vain 
to  heal  the  quarrel,  and  then  the  Jews,  hoping  for  help 
from  him,  determined  on  resistance ;  but  after  a  siege 
which  lasted  three  weeks,  they  were  forced  to  surrender, 
when  Muhammad,  contrary  to  the  usages  of  Arab  war- 
fare, had  destroyed  their  date-trees  and  ravaged  their 
lands.  They  then,  like  their  brethren  the  Qainuqaa, 
went  forth  into  exile,  and  the  spoil  fell  to  their  con- 
queror. Thus  had  two  of  the  great  Jewish  tribes  been 
driven  into  exile ;  the  third,  the  Bani  Quraiza,  which 
had  shrunk  from  their  help,  was  reserved  for  a  worse 
fate,  nor  was  it  long  before  that  fate  overtook  them. 


104      MUHAMMAD  AND   HIS  POWER 

Again  Muhammad  raised  an  exulting  p^ean  in  his 
revelation,  and  forged,  under  the  sanction  of  his  Lord, 
new  weapons  of  attack,  and  new  threatenings  for  his 
foes. 

The  breach  with  the  Jews  was  now  complete,  and 
Muhammad  could  no  longer,  as  before,  trust  a  Jew 
secretary.  He  therefore  cliose  one  of  his  own  followers 
for  the  office,  Zaid,  son  of  Thabit,  and  this  choice  was 
momentous,  for  it  is  to  this  Zaid  that  we  owe  the 
collection  of  the  Quran,  the  ultimate  basis  of  almost 
all  our  knowledge  of  Muhammad,  and  of  which  we  are 
"as  sure  that  it  is  the  word  of  the  Prophet,  as  his 
followers  are  that  it  is  the  word  of  God." 


CHAPTER   VIII 

Muhammad's  Fair  at  Badr — Scandalous  Marriage  with  Zainab — 
Justified  by  "Revelation"  —  Ordinances  for  Women — The 
Prophet's  Exemptions — The  Scandal  raised  against  Ayesha, 
who  is  cleared  by  a  Revelation— Punishment  of  the  Slanderers 
— Laws  for  the  Prophet's  Wives — Medina  besieged  by  the 
Quraish — The  Ditch — Siege  raised — Massacre  of  the  Quraiza 
Jewish  Tribe — Minor  Expeditions — Assassinations. 

The  second  battle  of  Badr,  to  which  the  Quraish  had 
defied  Muhammad  after  Uhud,  did  not  take  place. 
There  was  distress  and  scarcity  in  Mecca,  and  the 
Meccans  were  unable  to  set  a  large  force  in  the  field. 
They  therefore  bribed  some  desert  Araljs  to  carry  to 
Medina  false  tidings  to  terrify  the  people.  But  Mu- 
hammad was  not  deceived ;  he  set  out  at  the  head  of 
1500  men,  held  for  eight  days  a  large  fair  at  Badr,  and 
returned  with  honour  and  profit  to  Medina;  and  he 
published  in  the  Quran  (iii.  173  seq.)  a  song  of  en- 
couragement and  triumph.  No  further  attack  was 
made  from  Mecca  till  the  siege  a  full  j^ear  later,  and 
meanwhile  Muhammad  exercised  his  troops  in  various 
minor  expeditions,  inuring  them  to  war  and  hardship, 
fostering  their  appetite  for  spoil,  oj)ening  their  eyes  to 
wider  vistas  of  conquest  in  his  cause,  and  spreading 
through  ever-widening  areas  the  terror  of  his  name. 
On  one  of  these  minor  expeditions  lie  instituted  the 


io6       MUHAMMAD  AND   HIS   POWER 

"  Service  of  Danger,"  by  which  part  of  the  army  was 
kept  constantly  under  arms,  lest  they  should  be  sur- 
prised while  engaged  in  their  religious  duties :  even  so 
Ezra  had  provided  at  the  rebuilding  of  Jerusalem  more 
than  a  thousand  years  earlier. 

While  Muhammad  enjoyed  rest  from  his  foes  without, 
and  his  power  witliin  Medina  was  growing  more  and 
more  absolute  and  unquestioned,  he  further  increased 
the  number  of  his  wives,  and  promulgated,  as  by  divine 
authority,  those  ordinances  on  marriage,  seclusion  of 
women,  and  divorce,  together  with  those  exemptions 
personal  to  himself,  which  are  among  the  darkest  blots 
on  his  religion  and  his  own  character.  Within  a  year 
he  added  to  the  three  wives  he  already  had  three  more 
— Zainab,  widow  of  Ubaida,  slain  at  Badr,  called,  from 
her  great  charity,  "  the  mother  of  the  poor " ;  Umm 
Salma,  whose  liusband  died  of  wounds  received  at 
Uhud;  and  Zainab,  wife  of  Zaid,  who  divorced  her 
that  slie  miglit  become  Muhammad's  w4fe.  This  Zaid 
was  Muhammad's  freedman  and  ado2:)ted  son,  one  of  his 
earliest  and  most  attached  followers,  and  his  wife  should 
have  been  as  a  daughter  to  the  prophet :  in  Arab 
eyes  (as  in  Hindu  eyes  to-day)  she  was  his  daughter-in- 
laiv,  and  to  marry  her  was  incest.  Yet  Muhammad, 
a  man  now  of  fifty-seven,  saw  her  accidental  1}^  in 
undress  when  he  went  to  her  husband's  house ;  the 
wife's  vanity  was  flattered  by  his  undisguised  admira- 
tion ;  and  the  husband,  learning  what  had  happened, 
set  her  free  to  follow  her  fancy.  It  is  right  to  say  that 
the  Prophet  dissuaded  Zaid,  but  his  opposition  cannot 
have  been  strong ;  he  seized  the  opportunity  to  marry 
the  divorced  woman,  and  produced  a  divine  commission 
for  the   act,  wherein   it   was   declared   that   adoption 


LAWS  FOR  MUSLIM  WOMEN         107 

created  no  real  relationsliip,  and  that  the  conduct  of 
all  concerned  was  highly  pleasing  to  the  Lord !     Zaid 
has  in  consequence  the  singular  honour  of  being  the 
only   man   blessed   by   name   in   the   Quran,   as   Abu 
Lahb  has  of  being  cursed  therein ;  and  Zainab  claimed 
a  special  glory  as  having  been  given  by  God  to  the 
Prophet,  whereas  his  other  wives  he  had  chosen  for 
himself.     It  was  at  this  time,  perhaps  taught  by  his 
own   experience,    that    he    issued    (always    as    God's 
spokesman)  stringent  regulations  for  the  privacy  of 
his  wives.     Ko  longer  was  the  open  hospitality  of  the 
desert  Arabs  to  be  practised.     Strangers  were  to  come 
very  seldom  to  the  Prophet's  home :   it   must  be  re- 
membered that  he  had  no  separate  house  of  his  own. 
He  passed  his  days  in  rotation  at  the  houses  of  his 
wives :  visitors  were  to  stay  but  a  short  time,  and  to 
have  their  wants  supplied  from  the  household  separated 
by  a  curtain.     All  women  were  to  be  carefully  veiled 
before  any  but  their  nearest  relatives,  the  Prophet's 
privacy  was  specially  guarded,  and  liis  absolute  power 
and  discretion  affirmed,  and  the  darkest  threats  uttered 
against  any  infidels  who  dared  insult  Muslim  women. 
Amongst  the  peculiar  privileges  enjoyed  by  the  Prophet 
was  that  of  sharing  his  time  as  he  pleased  among  his 
wives,  whilst  other  Muslims  were  bound  to  divide  theirs 
equally  :  and  his  wives  were  condemned  after  his  death, 
this  also  by  revelation,  to  perpetual  widowhood.     We 
sliall  see  later  some  very  striking  uses  of  the  inter- 
vention of  the  friendly  Archangel  Gabriel  in  the  matter 
of  "revelations,"  even  in  matters  of  intimate  private 
concern.      It   is  always  to  be   remembered  that   Mu- 
liammad  tauglit  that  the  Quran  in  its  entirety  existed 
from  tlie  earliest  age  of  eternity,  being  the  first  created 


io8       MUHAMMAD  AND   HIS  POWER 

thing,  or  at  least  only  second  to  the  "Light  of 
Muhammad  "  ;  that  it  lay  recorded  at  the  throne  of  God 
on  the  Preserved  Tablet,  until  the  time  came  for  it  to 
be  revealed ;  that  it  was  then  sent  down  to  the  lowest 
heaven  by  the  hand  of  Gabriel,  and  was  by  him  there- 
after given  piecemeal  to  the  Prophet  by  successive 
instalments.  The  consequences,  and  the  advantages,  of 
this  system  are  obvious  ! 

In  this  same  year  626,  in  December,  Muhammad  led 
a  successful  expedition  against  the  Bani  Mustaliq,  who 
were  in  league  with  his  foes  of  Mecca.  He  took  with 
him  Ayesha  and  Umm  Salma.  The  attack  was  com- 
pletely successful,  and  very  large  booty  was  taken. 
But  two  very  unfortunate  events  marred  the  campaign. 
A  quarrel  broke  out  between  the  refugees  and  the 
men  of  Medina,  which  nearly  led  to  serious  blood- 
shed, and  Abdullah  ibn  Ubai  uttered  ominous  threats. 
Muhammad  averted  the  danger  by  breaking  up  his 
camp,  and  so  diverting  the  thoughts  of  the  army. 
The  second  matter  which  marred  Muhammad's  joy  in 
his  return  to  Medina  was  of  a  different  and  more  serious 
nature.  He  had  added  to  the  number  of  his  wives 
Juwairiya,  the  beautiful  widow  of  the  slain  chief  of 
the  Bani  Mustaliq,  after  himself  paying  to  her  captor 
the  large  ransom  required;  but  on  the  homeward 
march,  already  disturbed  by  the  quarrelsome  spirit  of 
the  men  of  Medina  and  the  threats  of  Abdallah, 
occurred  a  second  unfortunate  incident,  which  for  a 
time  threatened  altogether  to  shipwreck  his  domestic 
peace. 

It  was  Muliammad's  custom  to  take  with  him  on 
his  various  expeditions  from  Medina  one  or  more  of  his 
wives,  chosen  either  by  rotation  or  Ijy  lot.     On  that 


SCANDAL  AGAINST  AYESHA         109 

from  which  he  liacl  just  returned  his  companions  had 
been  Umm  Sahna  and  Ayesha,  the  latter  still  very 
young  as  age  is  counted  in  the  west,  but  blooming  into 
womanhood  in  the  sunnier  regions  of  Arabia.  She  had 
now  been  seven  years  married  to  the  Prophet,  and  was 
his  favourite  wife,  as  her  father  Abu  Bakr  was  his 
dearest  friend,  as  well  as  his  wisest  and  most  trusted 
counsellor.  When  death  removed  from  his  side  the 
faithful  Khadija,  not  very  long  before  Muhammad 
quitted  Mecca,  he  supplied  her  place,  as  we  have  already 
seen,  by  marrying  the  widowed  Sauda  and  Ayesha, 
who  was  still  a  cliild.  The  latter  choice  can  only  have 
been  made  from  a  desire  to  knit  more  closely  the  bonds 
by  which  he  was  already  tied  to  his  old  friend,  since, 
for  some  years  to  come,  Ayesha,  sprightly  and  winning 
though  she  was,  could  be  no  companion  for  him.  In 
fact,  the  choice  of  a  child  for  his  wife  was  scandalous 
in  the  eyes  even  of  his  own  followers,  and  still  more  in 
those  of  his  countrymen  generally.  The  marriage  was 
not  consummated  for  three  years,  and  even  then  the 
child-wife  had  not  yet  cast  away  her  dolls,  and  the 
Prophet  helped  her  to  play  with  them  ! 

Now,  however,  she  had  for  long  been  recognised  as 
queen  of  his  affections,  a  position  that  only  Hafsa, 
daughter  of  Omar,  sometimes  challenged,  but  in  vain. 
Ayesha  was  still  very  young,  and  too  slight  for  her 
weight  to  be  greatly  felt  in  the  covered  litter  which 
was  swung  on  the  camel  which  carried  her.  Now,  on 
the  day  when  Muhammad  and  his  force  marched  into 
Medina,  Ayesha's  litter  was  found  to  be  empty,  and  she 
herself  was  missing;  but  a  few  hours  later  one  of 
Muhammad's  adherents,  Safwan,  who  had  shared  in 
the  Flight,  came  into  the  city  leading  his  camel,  with 


no       MUHAMMAD  AND   HIS  POWER 

Ayesha  seated  thereon  closely  veiled,  as  the  recent 
ordinance  required  the  Prophet's  wives  to  be.  The 
explanation  she  gave  of  the  matter  was  natural  enough, 
and  there  seems  no  reason  for  not  accepting  it,  especi- 
ally when  her  position  and  the  circumstances  are 
considered.  She  had  everything  to  lose  and  nothing  to 
gain  by  an  intrigue,  and  there  is  no  other  occasion  of 
suspicion  against  her  during  all  her  long  life.  She  said 
that,  having  gone  from  her  tent  a  short  distance,  she 
had  dropped  a  necklace  which  she  valued.  Missing  it, 
she  again  left  her  tent  to  search  for  it,  and  while  she 
was  gone  the  litter  was  slung  up  on  the  camel,  the 
absence  of  her  light  weight  not  being  noticed,  and  the 
march  was  resumed.  When  she  returned,  not  finding 
her  camel,  she  sat  down  on  the  ground,  expecting  them 
to  return  for  her.  Meanwhile  Safwan  came  up,  having 
also  been  detained.  He  was  astonished  to  find  Ayesha, 
made  his  camel  kneel,  and  turned  away  his  head  while 
she  mounted.  He  then  made  all  haste  after  the  army, 
but  could  not  overtake  it,  and  so  it  happened  that 
Ayesha  entered  the  city,  and  went  into  her  house  in 
full  view  of  a  scandal-loving  public. 

Muhammad,  whose  conscience  perhaps  told  him  that 
his  recent  marriage  with  Juwairiya,  daughter  of  the 
the  slain  Mustaliq  chief,  and  a  little  earlier  with 
Zainab  after  her  divorce  by  Zaid,  had  given  special 
cause  of  jealousy  to  Ayesha,  was  much  disquieted  by 
the  reports  that  came  to  his  ears.  His  manner  changed, 
and  his  coldness  so  afibcted  Ayesha  that  she  fell  ill, 
and  with  her  husband's  consent  went  home  to  her 
parents.  The  breach  was  welcomed  by  the  enemies  of 
both  parties,  and  the  scandal  was  spread  by  Abdallah 
ibn  Ubai  on  the  one  hand,  and  by  the  poet  Hassan,  by 


THE  RECONCILIATION  iii 

Mista,  a  relative  of  Abu  Bakr,  and  Hamiia,  sister  of 
Zainab.  But  at  the  end  of  a  month  Muhammad  could 
bear  the  estrangement  no  longer,  and  rebuked  the 
slanderers  of  both  Ayesha  and  Safwan  publicly  from 
the  Mosque  pulpit.  It  was  an  unwarrantable  invasion 
of  his  privacy  to  discuss  the  affairs  of  his  family  at  all, 
and  there  was  nothing  against  either  of  the  slandered 
persons.  However,  he  took  counsel  with  Usama  (son  of 
Baraka,  the  Prophet's  nurse,  and  of  Zaid),  and  with  Ali, 
and  examined  Ayesha's  maid.  Usama  declared  the 
whole  story  slanderous,  the  maid  could  say  nothing 
against  her  mistress,  but  Ali — who  perhaps  thought 
only  that  "  Caesar's  wife  must  be  beyond  suspicion  " — 
seems  to  have  taken  a  harsher  view.  At  all  events 
Ayesha  believed  he  did  so,  and  this  was  probably  the 
cause  of  the  hatred  she  ever  afterwards  bore  him,  such 
that  she  rode  with  Muawiya's  army  when  he  and  Ali 
fought  for  the  Khalifate.  Ali,  she  says,  urged  the 
Prophet  to  put  her  away,  saying,  "  There  is  no  lack  of 
women  from  whom  thou  mayest  replace  her ! "  ^ 

Thereupon  Muhammad  went  straight  to  Abu  Bakr's 
house  and  himself  questioned  Ayesha,  whom  he  found 
plunged  in  grief.  Her  mother  had  sought  in  vain  to 
comfort  her,  telling  her  that  a  favourite  wife  could  not 
escape  the  envious  calumnies  of  her  rivals,  and  her 
father  also  was  powerless  to  help  her.  But  when 
Muhammad  sat  down  beside  her,  and  adjured  her  by 
God  to  confess  and  repent  if  what  men  laid  to  her 
charge  was  true,  after  a  short  silence,  in  the  hope  that 

^  After  the  battle  of  the  Camel,  however,  All's  chivalrous  conduct 
touched  her  heart,  and  she  said,  "There  befell  between  Ali  and  me 
only  that  which  commonly  befalls  between  a  wife  and  her  husband's 
kindred  "  (see  p.  187). 


112       MUHAMMAD  AND   HIS  POWER 

her  parents  would  answer  for  her,  she  passionately 
denied  the  charge.  "  I  am  helpless ;  I  am  guiltless, 
God  knows.  Yet  none  believeth  my  denial.  Patience 
hecometh  me,  God  is  my  lielper ! "  Muhammad's  doubts 
vanished;  but  he  perhaps  knew  that  others  would  require 
stronger  assurance.  He  affected  to  fall  into  a  pro- 
phetic trance,  and  his  hosts  covered  him  up.  After  a 
little  while  he  seemed  to  awake,  wiped  heavy  drops  of 
sweat  from  his  brow,  and  cried,  "  Rejoice,  Ayesha ! 
Verily  the  Lord  hath  revealed  thine  innocence."  And 
Ayesha  answered,  "  Praise  be  to  God ! " 

Then  Muhammad  went  to  the  people,  and  declared 
to  them  the  new  revelation.  They  were  sharply 
chidden  for  taking  up  and  carrying  the  slander,  which 
God  Himself  declared  to  be  groundless.  The  law  was 
laid  down  that  fornication  should  be  punished  publicly 
with  a  hundred  stripes ;  and  to  establish  a  charge  of 
adultery  against  a  married  woman  four  witnesses  were 
required,  failing  which  the  accusers  were  to  be  punished 
with  fourscore  stripes.  A  husband  might  establish  a 
charge  of  adultery  against  his  wife  by  a  fourfold  oath, 
with  an  imprecation  of  God's  wrath  upon  himself  if  he 
lied ;  and  it  was  open  to  the  wife  by  similar  oath  to 
clear  herself ;  but  the  husband's  absolute  right  to 
divorce  her  was  not  affected.  The  Chapter  warned  the 
slanderers  to  repent,  and  to  shun  such  calumny  in 
future ;  and  Abu  Bakr  was  exhorted  to  continue  his 
bounty  to  the  offending  Mista,  his  relative.  The  curse 
of  God  was  solemnly  pronounced  on  false  accusers, — 
and  then  the  earthly  penalty  of  stripes  was  inflicted 
on  all  who  had  slandered  Ayesha  in  this  matter,  ex- 
cepting only  Abdallah,  against  whom  evidently 
Muhammad    did    not    dare    to    proceed.      With    this 


LAW  OF  ADULTERY  AND  SLANDER    113 

punishment  the  Prophet  was  satisfied,  and  in  particu- 
lar he  extended  marked  favour  to  the  poet  Hassan,  who 
showed  his  gratitude  in  eloquent  praises  of  Ayesha, 
with  whom  he  was  thenceforward  closely  bound. 

The  interest  and  importance  of  the  story  lies  for  us 
not  in  the  question  of  Ayesha's  guilt  or  innocence, 
though  there  seems  small  ground  of  suspicion  against 
her,  but  in  the  light  shed  on  Muhammad's  character. 
He  gave  weight  to  the  charge  against  her,  and  came  to 
believe  she  was  innocent.  He  punished  her  accusers 
severely,  alleging  the  commands  of  God,  and  he  imposed 
on  his  injured  wife  and  on  her  father — his  old  friend 
Abu  Bakr — with  a  simulated  revelation.  But  he  also 
took  advantage  of  the  incident  to  lay  special  further 
restrictions,  in  the  name  of  God,  on  his  own  wives 
above  those  of  other  men  (Sura  33).     He  wrote: — 

"  0  Prophet !  say  to  thy  wives,  '  If  ye  desire  the  life 
of  this  world  and  its  adornments,  come,  I  will  give  you 
them  to  enjoy,  and  will  send  you  away  richly  endowed  1 
But  if  ye  desire  God  and  His  apostle  and  the  life  to 
come,  verily  God  hath  prepared  for  those  of  you  who 
do  well  a  mighty  reward. 

"  0  wives  of  the  Prophet !  whosoever  of  you  commits 
open  sin,  doubled  shall  be  her  torment  twice, — and  that 
is  easy  unto  God  ! 

"  But  she  among  you  who  cleaveth  fast  to  God  and 
His  apostle  and  doeth  righteousness,  to  her  will  we 
give  her  reward  twice  told,  and  for  her  have  we  pre- 
pared a  noble  provision. 

"  0  ye  wives  of  the  Prophet !  ye  are  not  like  unto 
other  women.     If  ye  fear  God  be  not  too  complaisant 
in  speech,  lest  he  in  whose  heart  is  a  disease  desire 
you ;  but  speak  well-ordered  speech. 
8 


114       MUHAMMAD  AND   HIS   POWER 

"  Abide  ye  within  your  houses,  and  set  not  off  your- 
selves as  in  past  days  of  Ignorance ;  but  be  ye  stead- 
fast in  prayer,  and  give  ahiis,  and  obey  God  and  His 
apostle.  Yerily  the  Lord  desires  only  to  put  aAvay 
abomination  from  you,  ye  that  are  of  His  house,  and 
thoroughly  to  purify  you  ! 

"And  remember  what  is  recited  in  your  houses  of 
the  signs  of  God  and  wisdom  ;  verily  God  is  subtle  and 
all-knowing." 

Then  Ayesha  resumed  her  ascendency  over  the 
Prophet's  heart,  only  the  more  powerful  for  the  tem- 
porary breach ;  and  the  Prophet  fenced  his  household 
round  with  an  impenetrable  veil  of  ceremony  and 
decorum.  The  name  of  God  was  used,  and  His  power 
usurped,  to  guard  the  virtue  of  Muhammad's  wives, 
and  the  divine  sanction  was  annexed  to  the  new 
ordinances  for  the  enslavement  of  women  to  man's 
caprice ! 

Muhammad  was  now  called  to  meet  a  formidable 
attack  from  without.  The  Quraish,  enraged  at  the  insult 
flung  in  their  teeth  by  the  fair  held  at  Badr,  had 
gathered  a  great  host  from  Mecca  and  the  allied  desert 
tribes,  and  advanced  on  Medina  in  such  strength  as  to 
compel  the  citizens  to  withdraw  within  their  walls. 
This  time  Muhammad's  wise  plans  were  heartily  sup- 
ported by  all ;  by  the  advice  of  a  Persian  prisoner, 
Salman,  a  great  trench  was  dug  to  complete  the  de- 
fences of  the  city;  the  Prophet  himself  laboured 
among  the  rest;  pick,  and  shovel,  and  basket  Avere 
plied  with  unflagging  zeal,  while  he  blessed,  en- 
couraged, and  shared  the  toil ;  and  in  six  days  the 
ditch  was  ready,  whilst  a  battery  of  stones  w^as  laid 
to   hand   against  assault.      It   was  in  fact   the   agger 


MEDINA  BESIEGED  115 

and  vallum  with  which  every  Roman  camp  was  pro- 
tected. 

The  enemy,  10,000  strong,  ravaged  the  country 
round,  and  advanced  against  the  city,  only  to  be  baffled 
by  the  new  defence.  They  then  endeavoured  to  gain 
over  to  their  side  the  only  remaining  Jewish  tribe,  the 
Quraiza,  who  occupied  a  walled  village  in  the  outskirts 
of  the  city.  Whether  the  Jews  did  agree  to  join  them 
or  not  is  doubtful.  The  evidence  is  entirely  that  of 
their  enemies,  they  had  strong  grounds  for  hostility  to 
Muhammad,  and  he  and  his  followers  had  (in  the  light 
of  after  events)  every  reason  to  blacken  them  :  in  any 
case  they  took  no  overt  part  in  the  attack.  Muhammad's 
small  army  of  3000  men  camped  within  the  ditch,  two 
strong  bodies  patrolled  the  streets  night  and  day,  and 
the  vigilance  of  the  defenders  repulsed  every  minor 
attack.  Two  determined  general  assaults  were  made 
on  successive  days ;  but  the  garrison,  though  sorely 
bestead,  beat  them  both  off.  The  valour  of  Ali 
especially,  and  the  galling  hail  of  the  archers,  aided 
by  the  wide  and  deep  ditch,  kept  back  even  the  fiery 
and  skilful  attacks  of  Khalid.  But  the  city  was  in 
terrible  straits,  and  the  courage  of  the  Muslims  almost 
failed.  Muhammad  tried  first  to  detach  the  Bedouin 
allies  from  his  enemies,  but  could  not  bribe  high 
enough, — and  the  siege  went  on  for  a  fortnight.  At 
the  end  of  that  time  he  succeeded  in  sowinof  distrust 
among  the  confederates,  who  were  already  straitened 
from  want  of  supplies ;  again  the  elements  came  to 
Muhammad's  aid,  and  a  great  storm  burst  over  the 
besieging  army ;  Abu  Sufiyan  broke  up  his  camp,  and 
the  siege  was  at  an  end. 

Muhammad    had    no   thought    of    pursuit,   but    he 


ii6      MUHAMMAD  AND   HIS  POWER 

resolved  by  an  act  of  terrible  punishment  to  destroy 
the  last  remnants  of  opposition  at  home.  He  had  not 
yet  cleansed  himself  from  the  dust  of  battle,  when  he 
ordered  Bilal  to  gather  the  host  to  the  great  Mosque ; 
the  banner  of  Islam  was  placed  in  All's  hands,  and  the 
whole  army — 3000  strong — was  led  forth  against  the 
fortress  of  the  Quraiza,  which  was  invested.  Ill-provided 
against  a  siege,  the  unhappy  Jews  soon  asked  for  terms, 
but  no  terms  would  be  granted.  A  friend  warned  them 
to  expect  no  mercy,  and  at  last,  after  a  despairing  defence 
of  fifteen  days,  they  surrendered  at  discretion,  it  being 
agreed  that  their  sentence  should  be  pronounced  by 
Saad,  of  the  Bani  Aus,  with  whom  they  had  been 
formerly  in  alliance.  Again  was  shown  the  awful 
truth  that  "  Islam  had  broken  all  old  ties."  His  tribes- 
men interceded  in  vain  with  Saad  for  the  2000 
hapless  Jews,  men,  women,  and  children ;  brought  with 
difficulty  from  the  bed  on  which  he  lay  from  a  wound 
gotten  in  the  siege,  he  surveyed  the  trembling  crowd 
with  unpitying  eye,  and  passed  the  doom :  "  The  men 
to  the  slaughter,  the  remnant  to  slave-market,  and  the 
spoil  to  the  army."  The  Prophet  approved :  Saad,  he 
said,  had  pronounced  the  judgment  of  God  in  the 
seventh  heaven  ;  trenches  were  dug  as  common  graves ; 
and  on  the  morrow  the  men  of  the  tribe,  to  the  number 
of  700,  were  butchered  in  cold  blood  under  Muhammad's 
own  eyes.  He  himself  took  the  "  royal  fifth  "  of  the 
captives  and  the  spoil,  the  women  and  children  were 
sold  into  slavery,  and  the  booty  divided ;  and  a  beauti- 
ful Jewess,  Rihana,  was  forced  to  be  the  Prophet's 
concubine,  as  she  refused  to  forsake  her  religion  and 
become  his  wife. 

No  words  can  fittingly  condemn  the  bloody  cruelty 


MASSACRE  OF  THE  JEWS  117 

of  this  massacre  ;  every  reader  will  judge  of  it  for  him- 
self ;  yet  not  a  word  of  pity  for  the  victims,  or  blame 
for  tlie  actors,  comes  from  a  Muslim  historian.  For  us 
the  last  touches  of  horror  are  added  by  the  fact  that 
Muhammad  declared  he  had  been  called  to  the  assault 
by  Gabriel  himself,  and  that  when  Saad  soon  after  died 
of  his  wound,  he  prayed  over  him  and  blessed  his 
memory,  and  declared  that  the  heavenly  host  helped  to 
carry  the  bier.  Thus  was  the  Prophet's  power  at  last 
established  absolutely  in  Medina:  the  time  had  now 
come  when  he  would  prepare  the  way  for  that  conquest 
of  Mecca,  of  which  he  had  long  dreamed. 

The  following  year  was  spent  in  minor  forays  or 
expeditions,  led  either  by  Muhammad  himself  or  by  some 
trusted  lieutenant :  some  were  punitive,  but  others  un- 
provoked attacks  for  purposes  of  plunder.  In  one  of 
the  former,  led  by  Zaid,  an  aged  woman,  Umm  Kirfa, 
was  put  to  death  in  a  cruel  and  barbarous  manner,  but 
no  censure  was  passed  on  the  horrid  deed.  A  rich 
Meccan  caravan  was  cut  off  and  plundered  at  Al  Is,  as 
it  passed  north  to  Syria  along  the  Red  Sea  shore ;  and 
among  the  captives  was  Muhammad's  own  son-in-law, 
Abul  Aas,  nephew  of  Khadija  and  husband  of  Zainab. 
Husband  and  wife  were  deeply  attached,  but  Abul  Aas 
had  not  embraced  Islam,  and  Zainab  had  stayed  behind 
with  him  in  Mecca.  He  had  already  been  taken 
prisoner  at  Badr,  and  set  free  by  Muhammad  for  love 
of  Khadija's  memory,  but  on  condition  that  Zainab 
should  be  sent  to  Medina.  This  was  done,  but  she 
suffered  grave  mischief  as  she  set  out,  for  which  after- 
wards bloody  vengeance  was  taken.  On  this  occasion, 
too,  the  captors  let  Abul  Aas  free  and  restored  his 
property  for  Muhammad's  sake;    he  joined  the  new 


ii8       MUHAMMAD  AND   HIS   POWER 

faith,  and  settled  in  Medina.  Another  expedition  is 
notable  as  tlie  first  communication  with  the  Roman 
Empire.  An  envoy  to  Syria,  who  had  been  favourably 
received,  Avas  returning  to  Muhammad,  when  he  was 
attacked  and  robbed ;  and  Zaid  inflicted  severe  punish- 
ment on  the  marauders.  This  was  followed  by  an 
expedition  against  Dumat  al  Jandal  (now  Jauf  ),^  where 
the  Christian  tribes  were  ofi^ered  the  choice  of  Islam  or 
tribute  ;  some  chose  one  and  some  the  other  alternative, 
— and  this  marks  a  further  step  in  Muhammad's  pro- 
gress to  empire.  There  remain  to  be  noticed  in  this 
period  the  treacherous  murder  of  Abdul  Haqiq,  a 
Jewish  chief,  at  Khaibar,  for  having  taken  part  in  the 
siege  of  Medina,  and  on  suspicion  of  further  hostile 
designs.  His  successor  in  the  chiefship,  together  with 
thirty  followers,  was  also  foully  murdered,  while 
their  murderers  were  actually  taking  them  under  safe- 
conduct  to  treat  with  Muhammad  at  Medina.  All  these 
treacherous  assassinations  were  solemnly  approved  by 
the  Prophet;  nay,  he  himself  actually  sent  a  well- 
known  bravo  to  murder  his  old  enemy  Abu  Sufiyan  in 
Mecca,  though  it  is  alleged  (without  much  proof)  that 
this  was  in  retaliation  for  a  similar  attack  from  Abu 
Sufiyan :  the  attempt  on  Muhammad's  life  is  said  to 
have  been  defeated  throuo^h  a  revelation  from  on  liio^h, 
but  his  own  emissary  was  recognised  as  a  notorious 
murderer,  and  in  his  escape  murdered  two  (or  three) 
defenceless  tribesmen ;  the  former  became  a  good 
Muslim,  and  the  latter  was  welcomed  home  by  the 
Prophet. 

^  The  first  stage  of  Palgravc's  adventurous  journey  in  1868. 


CHAPTER   IX 

A  Pilgrimage  to  Mecca  attempted  -—  Failure  —  Treaty  with 
Quraisli  —  Muhammad  summons  Eome,  Persia,  etc.  to 
embrace  Islam — Return  of  Exiles  from  Abyssinia— Jews  of 
Khaibar  conquered  —  Safia  married  —  Attempt  to  Poison 
Muhammad— Pilgrimage  performed— Defeat  at  Miita,  Zaid 
slain — Conquest  of  Mecca,  Muhammad's  clemency — Destruc- 
tion of  Idols— Victory  of  Hunain— Siege  of  Ta,if— The  Bani 
Saad— Birth  and  Death  of  Ibrahim— Scandal  with  Mary  the 
Copt. 

Now,  after  six  full  years  of  exile,  Muhammad  and  his 
followers  from  Mecca  longed  with  a  great  longing  after 
their  native  city,  and  to  take  their  part  once  more  in 
pilgrimage  and  its  hallowed  rites ;  and  in  a  dream  he 
saw  that  the  desire  of  their  hearts  had  been  granted 
them.  The  month  was  one  of  peace  —  ZuT  Qada  — 
in  which  the  Lesser  Pilgrimage  could  fitly  be  per- 
formed, so  (in  February  628),  after  inviting,  but  without 
much  success,  the  neighbouring  tribes  to  join  with  him, 
Muhammad  set  forth  at  the  head  of  1500  men.  Elated 
with  the  promise  of  success,  the  great  army  marched 
trustfully  forward ;  seventy  camels  were  devoted  for 
the  sacrifice.  As  they  approached  the  sacred  territory, 
all  assumed  tlie  iJivdin,  the  pilgrim's  garb,  and  shouted, 
"Labbaik!  Labbaik !  Here  are  Ave,  0  Lord!"  They 
marched  with  no  weapons  save  sheathed  swords,  and  had 
no  tliought  of  fighting.     But  the  Meccans  were  resolved 


120      MUHAMMAD  AND   HIS  POWER 

to  oppose  them.  A  large  army  was  gathered,  and  the 
Medina  road  blocked,  the  leaders  being  Khalid  and 
Ikrima,  and  the  troops  wearing  leopard  skins,  to  show 
they  would  conquer  or  die. 

On  hearino'  this  news  Muhammad  turned  aside  to 
Hudaibiya,  on  the  border  of  Meccan  territory,  and  there 
encamped.  At  first  he  was  minded  to  fight  in  order  to 
accomplish  his  purpose,  but  after  messengers  had  passed 
to  and  fro,  and  he  found  the  Quraish  absolutely  re- 
solved not  to  permit  the  pilgrimage,  he  yielded.  In  the 
negotiations  which  followed,  he  showed  great  skill ;  the 
envoys  of  the  Quraish  were  one  and  all  impressed  by 
the  state  he  held  and  the  devotion  of  his  followers,  and 
the  impression  then  made  was  of  no  small  use  after- 
wards. The  Quraish  absolutely  refused  to  allow  the 
pilgrimage  to  be  carried  out  that  year,  but  were  willing 
it  should  be  performed  the  next.  So  a  regular  treaty 
was  drawn  up,  and  Muhammad  was  thereby  recognised 
as  a  power  in  Arabia  of  equal  standing  with  the  state 
of  Mecca.  Some  dispute  arose  as  to  the  preamble,  but 
the  Prophet  yielded  on  all  unessential  points,  and  the 
treaty  was  duly  ratified,  the  original  remaining  with 
him,  and  a  copy  being  given  to  the  Quraish.  It  was 
agreed  that — (I)  war  should  cease  for  ten  years; 
(2)  tribes  and  individuals  should  be  free  to  ally  them- 
selves with  either  party;  (3)  minors  going  from  the 
Quraish  to  Muhammad,  without  consent  of  their 
guardians,  should  be  sent  back ;  but  (4)  followers  of 
Muhammad  returning  to  the  Quraish  should  not  be  sent 
back ;  (5)  Muhammad  and  his  followers  should  not 
enter  Mecca  this  year,  but  might  do  so  unarmed  for 
three  days  next  year,  and  perform  the  pilgrimage. 
The  abortive  pilgrimage  on  which  they  had  started  was 


ENVOYS  TO  FOREIGN  POWERS       121 

so  far  fulfilled  that  the  victims  were  slain  and  the 
pilgrims  shaved  their  heads,  and  the  Prophet  and  his 
followers  went  back  to  Medina. 

The  success  gained  was  great,  and  on  the  way  back 
Muhammad  was  "  inspired  "  to  celebrate  his  "  evident 
victory  "  from  the  Lord  (Sura  48).  His  followers,  who 
had  expected  to  fulfil  the  pilgrimage  unhindered,  and  who 
were  inclined  to  murmur,  were  satisfied  and  encouraged  ; 
severe  rebuke  was  dealt  to  the  tribes  who  had  refused 
to  march  with  them,  and  they  were  debarred  from 
sharing  future  adventures ;  while  special  blessings  were 
pronounced  on  "  the  men  of  the  Tree,"  who  had  pledged 
themselves  to  vengeance,  when  it  w^as  feared  that 
Muhammad's  envoy  —  Uthman  —  had  been  treacher- 
ously murdered  in  Mecca.  The  fruits  of  the  treaty  also 
soon  showed  themselves  in  the  adhesion  of  scattered 
converts  from  Mecca,  some  of  whom  were  surrendered 
under  it,  and  some  not ;  and  the  whole  of  the  Kliuzaa 
tribe  embraced  Islam.  Moreover,  Muhammad  now  felt 
so  sure  of  himself  and  his  power,  that  he  resolved  to 
summon  all  neighbouring  potentates  to  accept  his 
mission, — Rome,  Persia,  Abyssinia,  Syria,  Egypt,  and 
Yamama;  and  to  authenticate  the  credentials  of  his 
envoys,  he  caused  a  silver  seal  to  be  made,  graven 
with  the  words,  "  Muhammad  the  Apostle  of  God."  ^ 

The  despatch  to  the  Roman  Emperor  (Heraclius) 
reached  him  in  the  floodtide  of  success  against  Persia, 
and  no  reply  was  vouchsafed ;  nor  was  the  vassal 
chief  of  Ghassan  allowed  to  reply.  The  Persian  king 
tore  the  summons  scornfully  in  pieces,  but  he  himself 
was  soon  after  slain,  and  his  governor  of  Yaman  ac- 
knowledged the  Prophet's  claims.  In  Egypt  the  envoy 
^  See  Appendix. 


122       MUHAMMAD  AND   HIS  POWER 

was  received  with  honour,  though  the  governor  cour- 
teously decKned  to  acknowledge  Muhammad's  claims ; 
but  he  sent  him  the  present  of  two  beautiful  sisters  as 
slaves,  and  a  valuable  white  mule.  The  mule  was  taken 
for  the  Prophet's  own  riding,  and  the  fairer  of  the  two 
sisters,  Mary  the  Copt,  was  placed  in  his  harem,  the 
other — Shirin — being  bestowed  on  the  poet  Hassan, 
quite  lately  slanderer  of  Ayesha,  but  now  her  staunch 
friend.  A  similar  courteous  reply  came  from  the  Prince 
of  Ab^^ssinia,  who  also  gave  Umm  Habiba,  widow  of  one 
of  the  Meccan  exiles,  to  Muhammad  to  wife,  and  sent 
back  with  honour  all  the  exiles  who  had  not  already 
joined  him  in  Medina.  The  last  messenger  was  met 
with  a  singular  claim  to  share  the  power,  a  claim  Avhich 
was  promptly  rejected ;  and  the  daring  pretender  was 
heartity  cursed,  and  died  in  the  following  year ! 

The  return  of  the  exiles  remaining  in  Abyssinia,  how- 
ever, had  been  preceded  by  the  final  accomplishment  of 
Muhammad's  veno^eance  asfainst  the  Jews.  To  reward 
his  followers  after  the  unfulfilled  pilgrimage,  he  had 
promised  them  success  and  rich  spoil ;  and  accordingly, 
in  August  628,  he  set  out  from  Medina  at  the  head  of 
1600  men;  he  made  three  forced  marches  of  great 
length,  and  fell  unexpectedly  on  the  rich  Jewish  settle- 
ment of  Khaibar.  Taken  by  surprise,  the  little  forts 
that  studded  the  fertile  valley  fell  one  by  one ;  a  rally 
was  made  before  Qamus,and  the  attack  was  led  by  daunt- 
less Ali ;  prodigies  of  valour  were  performed,  the  des- 
perate courage  of  the  Jews  served  them  nothing,  Qamus 
was  surrendered,  and  Kinana,  the  chief,  gave  himself  up 
along  with  his  cousin.  Muhammad,  havino'  found 
occasion  against  them  for  concealing  some  of  their 
treasure,  had  them  cruelly  tortured  and  then  beheaded  ; 


KHAIBAR  TAKEN  123 

and  again  lie  celebrated  his  triumph  by  takino;  as  his 
wife  Safia  the  beautiful  widow  of  hapless  and  gallant 
Kinana.  Safia  submitted  to  her  new  lot,  it  is  said, 
gladly ;  but  Zainab,  another  woman  of  the  tribe,  who 
had  lost  husband  and  father  and  uncle  in  the  fighting, 
took  terrible  vengeance.  She  dressed  a  kid  for  the 
feast,  steeped  it  in  deadlj^  poison,  and  set  it  before  the 
Prophet  and  his  friends.  One  died,  and  Muhammad 
himself  was  violently  ill,  and  attributed  his  last  sickness 
(three  years  later)  to  the  eflfects  of  the  poison.^  The 
murderess  was  put  to  death.  The  remaining  strongholds 
of  Khaibar  surrendered,  and  the  immense  booty  en- 
riched every  man  of  the  army.  Half  the  lands  of 
Khaibar  also  were  portioned  out  among  them,  the  other 
half  being  assigned  as  a  sort  of  crown  domain  to 
Muhammad ;  stringent  laws  were  laid  down  against 
embezzlement  of  booty  ;  and  some  ceremonial  ordinances 
regarding  unclean  meats  were  promulgated.  Then  with 
an  army  enriched,  and  a  new  wife  for  himself,  the 
Prophet  returned  to  Medina,  welcomed  back  the 
exiles  from  Abyssinia,  and  celebrated  fresh  nuptials 
with  Umm  Habiba,  his  ninth  wife  ! 

After  a  quiet  half  year  in  Medina,  broken  only  by 
some  minor  expeditions,  the  time  came  round  when  by 
treaty  the  pilgrimage  might  be  performed,  and  three  days 
might  be  spent  in  Mecca.  In  February  629,  Muhannnad 
started,  with  a  followino;  now  o^rown  to  2000  men,  un- 
armed  save  with  sheathed  swords,  and  with  sixty 
camels  for  the  sacrifice ;  the  Quraish,  to  avoid  all 
chance  of  conflict,  withdrew  to  the  neighbouring  hills, 

^  One  of  the  extravagant  late-invented  tales  to  exalt  the  Prophet  is, 
that  the  poisoned  kid's  flesh  cried  out  from  the  dish,  warning  him  not 
to  touch  it  ! 


124       MUHAMMAD  AND   HIS   POWER 

and  looked  curiously  on,  while  the  mi^^dity  cavalcade 
swept  into  the  vacant  city.  It  was  a  solemn  occasion, and 
the  hearts  of  the  exiles  thrilled  with  emotion,  as  they 
followed  their  beloved  leader  to  perform  the  hallowed 
rites  from  which  they  had  so  long  been  debarred. 
"  Labbaik  !  Labbaik  !  "  they  cried ;  the  Prophet  touched 
with  his  staff  the  thrice-holy  Black  Stone,  which  many 
years  before  he  had  guided  to  its  place  in  the  temple 
wall ;  seven  times  he  rode  round  the  Holy  House,  and 
seven  times  his  followers  compassed  it — three  times  at 
racing  speed,  and  four  at  more  sober  pace;^  and  he 
stilled  the  shout  of  defiance  they  began,  and  bade  them 
instead  cry  aloud :  "  There  is  no  God  but  the  Lord 
alone  !  It  is  He  that  hath  holden  His  servant  and  exalted 
his  army  !  Alone  hath  He  discomfited  the  confederate 
hosts  ! "  Then  they  made  the  passage  seven  times  be- 
tween Safa  and  Marwa,  slaughtered  the  victims,  and 
shaved  their  heads ;  and  at  length  the  pilgrimage  was 
accomplished. 

The  next  day  Muhammad  passed  the  forenoon  in 
prayer  at  the  Kaaba,  and  at  noon  loud-voiced  Bilal 
summoned  the  host  to  public  prayer  in  the  sacred  pre- 
cincts, and  the  Prophet  led  their  devotions.  During 
the  three  days  of  his  stay,  he  entered  no  house  in  Mecca, 
but  abode  in  a  tent ;  there  he  received  such  of  the  citizens 
as  came  to  him,  and  his  courteous  and  winning  ways 
liad  their  effect.  At  the  suggestion  of  his  uncle  Abbas, 
whose  widowed  sister-in-law  she  was,  he  arranged  to 
marry  Maimuna,  and  the  marriage  was  celebrated  at 

^  This  is  still  the  custom,  as  Burton  found.  Tradition  says  Muham- 
mad directed  it  to  be  so,  that  the  Quraish  might  see  how  little  the 
climate  of  Medina  had  relaxed  the  Muslims'  strength  !  Each  time  the 
pilgrim  passes  the  Black  Stone  he  kisses  it,  if  possible,  but,  if  not,  he 
touches  it  with  his  hand,  which  he  then  kisses. 


PILGRIMAGE  TO  MECCA  125 

the  first  stage  on  the  retreat  from  Mecca,  as  the  Quraish 
roughly  insisted  that  the  three  clays  stay  should  not  be 
exceeded.  Maimuna  was  at  this  time  fifty-one,  and  this 
marriage  was  Muhammad's  last.  It  had  important 
political  consequences,  for  Maimuna  was  aunt  to  the 
mighty  warrior  Khalid,  who  shortly  after  embraced 
Islam,  and  was  followed  by  Amru,  a  poet  and  man  of 
counsel,  famous  in  after  days  as  the  conqueror  of  Egypt, 
and  by  Uthman,  custodian  of  the  Kaaba.  Thus  was 
the  Prophet's  cause  advanced  in  Mecca,  while  the  power 
of  the  Quraish  correspondingly  declined. 

In  the  year  that  followed,  the  fortunes  of  Muhammad 
were  chequered.  He  inflicted  punishment  on  various 
tribes,'  in  one  case  sending  forth  his  commander  with 
instructions  "  not  to  let  a  soul  escape,"  which  order  was 
obeyed  to  the  letter.  But  the  great  event  of  the  year 
was  the  disastrous  battle  of  Muta,  when  the  small  Arab 
army  of  3000  men  met  the  legions  of  Heraclius.  They 
had  been  sent,  under  Zaid's  command,  to  avenge  the 
murder  of  an  envoy,  and  were  dismissed  by  Muhammad 
from  the  "  Mount  of  Farewell "  with  the  blessing :  "  The 
Lord  shield  you  from  every  evil,  and  bring  you  back  in 
peace  laden  with  spoil ! "  Zaid,  who  had  thought  to 
meet  only  a  desert  tribe  of  the  Syrian  border,  came 
upon  the  whole  Imperial  army  strongly  posted  at  the 
southern  extremity  of  the  Dead  Sea. 

A  halt  was  called  and  a  council  of  war  held,  but  the 
bolder  counsel  prevailed ;  the  army  again  went  forward, 
and  awaited  attack.  The  Roman  army,  Arab  horse  on 
either  flank,  swept  on  and  enveloped  the  little  host; 
Zaid,  with  the  Prophet's  white  banner  in  one  hand, 
fought  bravely  in  the  foremost  ranks  and  fell.  Jafar 
and  Abdallah,  appointed  to  command  in  succession  after 


126       MUHAMMAD  AND   HIS   POWER 

him,  emulated  his  bravery  and  likewise  fell ;  after  which 
Khalid,  raised  by  general  voice  to  the  command,  col- 
lected the  scattered  remnant  of  the  routed  army,  and 
by  skilful  leading  brought  them  back  to  Medina.  Some 
of  the  people  murmured  at  the  retreat,  but  Muhammud 
welcomed  the  brave,  though  beaten,  troops  and  their 
leaders,  and  cheered  them  with  words  of  hope ;  but 
deeply  he  mourned  for  his  devoted  friend  Zaid  and  the 
others  who  had  fallen,  and  comforted  and  relieved  their 
sorrowing  families. 

The  disaster  of  Muta  was  soon  avenged  by  Amru, 
who  marched  rapidly  with  300,  reinforced  later  to 
500,  men  to  the  Syrian  border.  The  Roman  forces 
retired  before  him,  the  frontier  tribes  gave  in  their 
submission,  and  the  power  of  Muhammad  was  greatly 
extended  and  confirmed.  The  terror  of  his  arms  was 
much  helped  by  his  courteous  reception  of  all  who 
came  in,  and  his  fame  for  power  and  clemency  spread 
through  Arabia. 

The  following  year,  630,  crowned  Muhammad  with 
the  conquest  of  Mecca.  A  ground  of  quarrel  was 
furnished  by  an  attack  by  allies  of  the  Quraish  on 
the  Khuzaa,  who  had  joined  Muhammad.  To  him 
they  at  once  appealed,  and  he  seized  the  oppor- 
tunity: "If  I  help  3^ou  not  as  strongly  as  though 
the  cause  were  mine  own,  never  more  may  the  Lord 
help  me  in  my  need ! "  he  exclaimed.  The  news  was 
carried  to  Mecca,  and  the  Meccans  in  terror  sent  Abu 
Suhyan  to  heal  the  breach ;  but  he  returned  without 
success. 

Muhammad  gathered  his  hosts  for  attack,  but 
masked  his  object.  A  woman  was  sent  secretly  to 
warn   the   Quraish,   but   was   captured   and    brought 


CONQUEST  OF  MECCA  127 

back,  and  on  the  1st  January  630,  10  Ramadhan, 
A.H.  8,  the  great  host  set  forward  for  the  conquest  of 
the  Holy  City.  The  desert  allies  were  called  up  and 
swelled  the  army  with  warriors,  till  at  the  head  of 
well-nigh  10,000  men  Muhammad  pushed  on  by  forced 
marches,  encamping,  ere  more  than  a  week  was  past, 
at  the  last  stage  before  Mecca ;  while,  as  a  first-fruit 
of  his  success,  his  uncle  Abbas  came  out  and  enrolled 
himself  amongst  his  followers.  So  swift  and  secret 
had  been  the  advance  that  the  Quraish  were  in  ignor- 
ance of  their  danger,  and  Abu  Sufiyan,  sent  forth  to 
reconnoitre,  was  astounded  by  the  blaze  of  countless 
camp-fires  on  the  heights  surrounding  Mecca.  Abbas 
met  him,  and  led  him  to  the  Prophet's  tent,  but  he  was 
not  admitted  to  an  audience  until  the  morrow.  It  was 
then  too  late  to  make  terms ;  a  short,  stormy  interview 
ended  by  his  embracing  Islam ;  and  then  he  was  sent 
back  to  the  city,  with  the  promise  that  none  who  sought 
refuge  with  him,  or  at  the  Kaaba,  or  that  stayed  in 
their  own  houses,  should  be  harmed.  The  chief  went 
back,  and  as  he  passed  through  the  warlike  host,  he 
clearly  saw  that  the  Prophet's  day  of  triumph  had 
dawned. 

As  the  conqueror's  terms  were  proclaimed,  the 
aflfrighted  citizens  fled  in  all  directions  to  seek 
asylum  ;  the  arm}^  marched  on  the  unresisting  city ; 
the  various  divisions  advanced  by  their  appointed 
roads ;  every  possible  precaution  was  taken  to  avoid 
bloodshed, — and  only  one  skirmish  took  place,  between 
Khalid's  force  and  a  desperate  band  of  Meccans.  Other- 
wise the  advance  was  unopposed ;  and  Muhammad, 
preceded  by  the  Refugees,  passed  into  the  valley,  not 
far  from  the  tombs  of  Khadija  and  Abu   Talib,  and 


128       MUHAMMAD  AND   HIS  POWER 

pitched  his  tent  just  outside  the  city  on  the  north, 
the  great  white  standard  being  reared  beside  it. 
Soon  he  again  came  forth,  mounted  Al  Qaswa,  and 
rode  to  the  Kaaba.  There  he  first  touched  the  Black 
Stone  with  his  staff,  and  then  commanded  that  the 
temple  should  be  cleansed  from  its  idols.  They  fell 
one  by  one  at  his  word,  and  last  of  all  the  great  image 
of  Hubal,  chief  tutelary  deity  of  Mecca;  as  that 
crashed  to  the  ground,  he  said,  ''Truth  is  come,  and 
falsehood  is  vanished  away ;  for  verily  lying  is  but  for 
a  moment ! "  Then  he  worshipped  at  the  Station  of 
Abraham,  and  commanded  the  door  of  the  Temple  to  be 
opened  to  him ;  next,  standing  on  the  threshold,  he  exer- 
cised the  first  acts  of  authority  by  returning  the  keys 
to  Uthman  as  hereditary  guardian,  and  confirming  to 
his  uncle  Abbas  the  right  of  supplying  the  pilgrims 
with  water.  The  inside  of  the  Temple  also  was  cleansed 
from  all  idolatrous  taint,  and  then  the  Prophet  gave 
vent  to  the  deep  love  he  bore  to  his  native  city: 
"Thou  art  the  choicest  portion  of  the  earth  to  me, 
and  the  most  lovable :  had  I  not  been  cast  forth,  never 
should  I  have  forsaken  thee."  The  citizens  were  won 
by  his  words,  and  then  he  turned  to  them  of  Medina 
and  said,  "  God  forbid  that  I  should  leave  you ;  where 
ye  live  will  I  live  too,  and  there  will  I  die ! " 

Muhammad  now  showed  himself  as  generous  in 
victory  as  he  had  been  resolute  to  have  submission. 
He  proclaimed  a  general  amnesty,  from  which  only  ten 
or  twelve  persons  were  excluded,  and  of  them  only 
four  were  actually  put  to  death.  Even  Abdallah,  the 
renegade  secretary,  with  Hind,  the  ferocious  wife  of 
Abu  Sufiyan,  Ikrima,  and  Safwan  were  forgiven  on 
professing  Islam. 


BATTLE  OF   IIUNAIN  129 

Thus  was  MecCta  conquered  almost  without  blood- 
shed ;  the  citizens  turned  heartily  to  their  new  master 
and  his  religion ;  and  the  great  shrine  and  idols  of  the 
surrounding  tribes  were  destroyed  almost  without 
opposition.  Only  Khalid  shed  innocent  blood,  and 
Muhammad  made  amends  for  it,  though  he  could  not 
dismiss  his  able  but  savage  lieutenant. 

Muhammad's  repose  was  soon  rudely  broken.  The 
great  and  warlike  tribe  of  Hawazin,  whose  wide  terri- 
tories lay  towards  the  north-east  of  Mecca,  moved  by 
fear  or  jealousy  of  his  power,  mustered  their  forces  to 
attack  him ;  and  just  four  weeks  after  he  had  left 
Medina,  he  marched  against  them  at  the  head  of 
12,000  men,  of  whom  2000  were  Meccans.  The  two 
armies  met  at  the  valley  of  Hunain,  but  Malik,  the 
Hawazin  leader,  had  seized  the  narrow  entrance 
to  it  and  laid  an  ambush;  so  confident  was  he  of 
victory  that,  against  the  advice  of  his  old  coun- 
sellor Duraid,  he  brought  with  him  the  women 
and  children,  the  flocks  and  the  herds  of  the  clan. 
Khalid  led  the  Muslim  advance,  but  his  troops  fell 
into  the  ambush;  they  were  thrown  back,  and  the 
whole  army  began  to  flee  in  wild  confusion.  By  the 
utmost  personal  exertion,  the  most  passionate  appeals, 
Muhammad  rallied  his  forces ;  they  turned  again 
fiercely  to  the  attack,  and  desperately  stormed  the 
heights ;  at  the  critical  moment  the  Prophet,  as  before 
at  Badr,  cast  a  handful  of  gravel  against  the  foe, 
crying,  "  Ruin  seize  them  ! "  and  again,  "  I  swear  by 
the  Lord  of  the  Kaaba !  God  hath  cast  fear  into  their 
hearts."  The  enemy  wavered,  broke,  and  fled  in  head- 
long rout;  and  though  Malik  with  the  rearguard 
covered  the  flight,  his  camp,  with  women,  children, 


130      MUHAMMAD  AND   HIS  POWER 

cattle,  and  stores,  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Muslims. 
The  pursuit  was  pressed,  and  the  rout  completed,  but 
not  without  severe  loss  to  the  victors.  But  tliougli  the 
army  was  dispersed,  a  large  part  of  it  had  fallen  back 
into  Ta,if,  a  fortified  town,  to  Avhich  Muhammad  at  once 
laid  regular  siege.  It  was  vigorously  carried  on,  and 
engines  of  war  brought  up,  but  in  vain ;  even  the  fruit- 
trees,  for  which  the  town  has  alwa^^s  been  famous,  were 
destroyed;  but  the  garrison  held  out,  and  the  siege 
was  raised. 

The  booty,  stored  during  the  siege,  was  now  divided, 
and  this  was  done  with  such  wise  liberality  as  to  win 
over  many  of  Muhammad's  powerful  foes ;  the  men  of 
Medina,  murmuring  over  the  favour  shown  to  Meccans, 
were  again  won  over  by  appeal  to  their  devotion ;  even 
Malik,  the  Hawazin  chief,  was  converted  to  Islam  by 
the  wise  generosity  shown  him.  Most  touching  of  all, 
however,  is  the  story  of  how  the  captives  were  set 
free.  The  Bani  Saad,  among  whom  Muhammad  had 
been  fostered,  were  a  branch  of  the  Hawazin,  and  one 
of  the  prisoners  was  his  own  foster-sister.  She  made 
good  her  claim,  was  kindly  treated,  and  sent  back  with 
rich  gifts  to  her  people ;  the  ties  of  fosterage  were  then 
pressed  by  the  people  generally,  and  liberally  allowed ; 
and  in  the  end  all  the  prisoners  were  set  free  by  their 
captors,  Muhammad  himself  paying  their  ransom  where 
any  was  demanded.  He  then  again  performed  the 
Lesser  Pilgrimage  and  returned  to  Medina,  leaving, 
as  his  deputy  in  Mecca,  Attab,  a  young  and  wise 
Quraishite,  and  Mu,az  to  instruct  the  citizens  in  the 
Quran  and  the  duties  of  religion. 

On  his  return  to  Medina,  the  Prophet  was  bereaved 
of   his   daughter  Zainab;   Ruqaya  he  had  lost  when 


BIRTH   OF   IBRAHIM  131 

Badi-  was  fought,  and  now  Fatima  only  was  left. 
But  great  joy  followed,  for  Mary,  the  Coptic  girl  sent 
him  from  Egypt,  bore  him  a  son,  whom  he  named 
Ibrahim.  Naturally  the  tenderness  of  his  love  for  the 
child  was  unbounded,  and  overflowed  to  the  mother. 
He  showed  her  special  favour,  to  the  neglect  even  of 
Ayesha  and  Hafsa,  and  these  two  naturally  resented 
it.  Was  it  to  be  endured  that  the  daughters  of 
his  two  most  powerful  supporters,  both  in  the  prime 
of  womanhood,  both  sprung  from  the  bluest  blood 
of  the  Quraish,  should  be  set  aside  for  an  Abyssinian 
slave-girl  ? 

Muhammad  had  owed  to  Mary  the  Copt  the  greatest 
happiness  of  his  later  years,  in  the  birth  of  Ibrahim, 
the  child  of  his  old  age,  and  the  early  loss  of  the  little 
one  was  the  deepest  grief  he  could  suffer.  Not  one  of 
his  many  wives,  since  he  lost  Khadija,  had  borne  him 
a  child,  and  of  his  children  by  her  only  one  daughter 
now  survived — Fatima,  wife  of  Ali,  in  whose  two  sons, 
Hasan  and  Husain,  now  lay  the  sole  hope  of  the  con- 
tinuance of  his  race.  It  is  easy,  therefore,  to  understand 
how  his  heart  had  been  bound  up  in  the  boy,  and  how 
greatly  he  loved  the  mother.  And  so  it  befell  that  he 
was  involved  in  the  last  and  perhaps  the  worst  scandal 
of  his  life,  through  the  jealousy  which  is  inseparable 
from  the  practice  of  polygamy.  The  story  is  most 
unpleasant  to  tell,  but  it  is  generally  accepted  and  told 
without  a  word  of  censure  by  the  chief  commentators 
on  the  Quran,  and  by  most  of  the  Prophet's  biographers, 
and  their  attitude  towards  it  is  typical  of  their  general 
position  in  regard  to  him.  Possessing,  as  they  hold, 
every  virtue  in  the  highest  degree,  his  every  action  is 
praiseworthy;  everything  done  in  his  service  or  for 


132       MUHAMMAD  AND   HIS  POWER 

his  sake  is  to  bo  commended,  and  no  breath  oi*  censure 
is  to  blow  upon  his  life. 

When  Mary  had  come,  together  with  her  sister 
Shirin,  to  Muhammad,  he  had  not  married  her,  and 
it  seems  doubtful  whether  she  had  embraced  Islam, 
though  one  tradition  says  that  he  chose  her  for  himself 
rather  than  her  sister  because  she  was  the  first  to 
pronounce  the  confession  of  faith.  He  gave  her  also  a 
separate  dwelling,  a  little  house  in  a  garden,  and  there 
he  used  to  visit  her.  As  we  have  seen,  he  had,  when 
he  came  to  Medina,  built  no  separate  house  for  himself, 
but  his  wives  had  each  her  own,  the  whole  forming  a 
row  of  little  dwellings  facing  the  Mosque ;  and  he  used 
to  spend  a  day  with  each  in  rotation,  taking  with  him 
the  few  things  necessary  for  his  personal  comfort.  He 
had  been  by  "  revelation  "  freed  from  the  obligation  to 
divide  his  time  strictly  among  his  wives,  but  he  had 
not  availed  himself  of  the  privilege.  One  day,  how- 
ever, when  it  was  Hafsa's  turn,  she  went  to  spend  the 
day  with  her  parents,  and  he  passed  the  time  in 
Hafsa's  own  apartment  with  Mary.  Hafsa  returned 
unexpectedly,  and  found  the  door  locked,  so  that  she 
could  not  gain  admittance  till  Muhammad  came  out. 
She  then  went  in,  found  Mary,  and  threatened  to  make 
the  scandal  and  insult  to  herself  public.  To  appease 
her  righteous  indignation  Muhammad  swore  that  he 
would  not  again  see  Mary,  but  he  solemnly  bound 
Hafsa  to  keep  the  matter  secret.  Hafsa,  however, 
who  was  very  intimate  with  Ayeslia,  could  not  refrain 
from  revealing  the  matter  to  her,  and  she  appears  to 
have  betrayed  her  knowledge  to  Muhammad. 

He  was  very  angry  that  the  matter  should  have  got 
abroad,  declared  himself  at  once  free  from  his  oath,  and 


SCANDAL  ABOUT  MARY  133 

proceeded  to  punish  all  his  wives,  by  forsaking  their 
society  altogether  and  spending  a  whole  month  in 
the  company  of  Mary.  At  the  end  of  that  time, 
however,  the  situation  became  intolerable;  Abu  Bakr 
and  Omar  were  beyond  measure  grieved  at  the  scan- 
dal in  which  their  daughters  were  involved,  and 
Muhammad  determined  to  end  it.  As  on  the  former 
occasion  with  Ayesha,  so  now  he  pretended  that 
Gabriel  intervened  with  a  message  from  on  high, 
bidding  him  forgive  Hafsa  on  her  repentance ;  the  for- 
giveness was  naturally  extended  to  all  the  rest,  and 
matters  resumed  their  former  course  in  his  relations 
with  his  wives. 

The  offence  of  Hafsa  lay  in  her  betrayal  of  Muham- 
mad's secret,  to  which  Ayesha  had  become  a  party  by 
receiving  the  confidence,  and  the  two  together  were 
guilty  of  disobedience  to  the  Prophet,  little  better  than 
high  treason.  Nothing  is  told  us  of  oftence  given  by 
the  other  wives  (of  whom  there  were  seven),  and  we 
are  driven  to  think  that  Muhammad  was  glad  of  a 
pretext  to  indulge  for  a  time  exclusively  his  passion 
for  Mary.  He  again  promulgated  a  chapter  of  the 
Quran,  confirming  and  extending  his  own  power  and 
privileges,  and  setting  forth  his  singular  position  as 
the  favourite  and  confidant  of  Heaven.  Palmer,  in  his 
note  on  the  Chapter  (64),  accepts  without  question  the 
story  of  Hafsa's  wrong  and  her  betrayal  of  the  secret, 
and  explains  that  it  "  is  intended  to  free  him  from  his 
oath  respecting  Mary,  and  to  reprove  his  wives  for 
their  conduct";  it  runs: — 

"0  Prophet,  wherefore  dost  thou  forbid  to  thj^self 
what  God  has  made  lawful  to  thee,  seeking  to  please 
thy  wives  ?  but  God  is  forgiving,  compassionate  ! 


134      MUHAMMAD  AND   HIS  POWER 

"God  has  allowed  you  to  expiate  your  oaths;  for 
God  is  your  King,  and  He  is  all-knowing  wise ! 

"  And  when  the  Prophet  told  as  a  secret  to  one  of  his 
wives  a  recent  thing,  and  when  she  told  thereof  and  ex- 
posed it,  he  acquainted  her  of  part,  and  part  he  kept  back. 

"  But  when  he  informed  her  of  it,  she  said,  '  Who 
told  thee  this  ? '  he  said,  '  The  Wise,  the  Well-aware 
informed  me. 

"'If  ye  both  turn  penitent  unto  God, — for  j^our 
hearts  have  swerved  !  (Well !) — but  if  ye  support  one 
another  against  him, — verily,  God,  He  is  King ;  and 
Gabriel  and  the  rio^hteous  of  the  believers,  and  the 
angels  after  that,  will  support  him. 

" '  It  may  be  that  his  Lord,  if  he  divorce  j^ou,  will 
give  him,  in  exchange,  wives  better  than  you, — Muslims, 
believers,  devout,  repentant,  prayerful,  given  to  fasting, 
— such  as  have  been  wedded,  and  virgins  too.' " 

The  reference  to  the  "  part  concealed  "  by  the  Prophet 
in  his  upbraiding  of  liis  peccant  wife  is  obscure,  and 
one  tradition  makes  it  refer  to  his  telling  Ayesha  and 
Hafsa  that  first  Abu  Bakr  and  then  Omar  should 
succeed  to  his  power  after  his  death :  the  story  is  un- 
likely, and  the  tradition  weak.  Probably  enough,  it  was 
invented  to  counterbalance  those  which  alleged  that  Ali 
had  been  designated  as  successor.  Another  tradition 
interprets  the  "  promise,"  from  which  the  Prophet  was 
absolved,  as  one  to  refrain  from  eating  honey,  flavoured 
with  a  certain  strong-smelling  shrub  ;  but  this  explana- 
tion is  very  generally  rejected,  and  seems  on  the  face 
of  it  absurd.  The  "  faithful "  were  by  this  time  quite 
used  to  the  interposition  of  Gabriel  and  divine  revela- 
tion in  the  Prophet's  domestic  affairs,  and  their  robust 
belief  was  not  staggered  by  this  last  instance   of  it. 


THE  RECONCILIATION  135 

Yet  it  is  difficult  to  find  words  for  the  awful  blasphemy, 
the  daring  impiety  which  would  drag  into  a  story  of 
incontinence  and  vulgar  jealousy  the  name  and  the 
commands  of  the  Almighty,  the  God — as  Muhammad 
taught  —  of  unapproachable  and  ineffable  holiness ! 
It  casts  on  the  self-styled  Prophet  the  deepest  and 
darkest  stain.  It  ma}''  here  be  noted  that  the  re- 
mainder of  the  chapter,  of  which  the  verses  relevant 
to  the  aftair  of  Mary  have  been  quoted,  consists  of 
eloquent  and  awful  warnings  to  repentance,  strength- 
ened by  promises  of  reward  and  threats  of  punishment, 
and  by  illustrations  of  the  blessed  and  the  accursed 
women  of  ancient  sacred  history  or  legend, — the  wives 
of  Noah  and  of  Lot,  the  queen  of  Pharaoh  and  the 
Virgin  Mary ! 

By  the  birth  of  her  son  Ibrahim,  so  named  doubtless 
after  the  "  Father  of  the  Faithful,"  whose  religion 
Muhammad  professed  to  restore,  Mary  was  raised 
above  the  ordinary  status  of  a  slave.  She  was  no 
longer  subject  to  sale  by  her  master  (a  merciful  pro- 
vision which  even  our  own  generation  remembers  did 
not  exist  in  the  Slave  States  of  America),  and  at  his 
death  would  be  entitled  to  her  freedom. 

But  the  Prophet  was  not  to  be  blessed  for  any  length 
of  time  with  male  offspring.  For  the  first  year  of  his 
life  Ibrahim  throve  well,  his  father  visited  him  daily 
at  the  house  of  his  foster-mother,  and  loved  to  have 
him  on  his  knees ;  but  the  little  life  soon  dwindled 
away,  and  to  his  unspeakable  grief  this  last  son  too 
was  lost  to  Muhammad.  His  sorrow  seemed  even 
excessive  to  his  followers,  some  of  whom  ventured  to 
upbraid  him;  but  he  heeded  them  not.  He  laid  the 
little  body  tenderly  in  the  grave  with  his  own  hands, 


136      MUHAMMAD  AND  HIS  POWER 

and  blessed  the  child,  saying,  "  The  days  of  thy  nursing 
shall  be  accomplished  in  paradise."  Then  he  went 
home,  and  comforted  the  bereaved  mother;  and  the 
faithful  nurse  he  dowered  with  a  fair  garden  of  palm- 
trees. 


CHAPTEK   X 

Muhammad  now  supreme  in  Arabia — Administrative  Steps — 
Tribute  and  Tax- Gatherers  —  Treaty  with  Christian  Tribes 
— The  "  Year  of  Deputations  " — Idolaters  forbidden  to  enter 
Mecca— Ordinance  of  Holy  War — The  Farewell  Pilgrimage — 
Last  Illness  and  Death  of  Muhammad. 

Muhammad,  Prophet-Prince  of  Medina  and  conqueror 
of  Mecca,  was  now,  by  his  victory  at  Hunain,  the  chief 
power  in  Arabia.  By  his  skill  in  weaving  into  the 
new  faith  the  immemorial  superstitions  of  Arabia,  the 
worship  at  the  Kaaba,  and  the  annual  pilgrimage  to 
Mecca,  he  had  established  his  spiritual  power  on  a  firm 
basis ;  and  in  Islam  secular  authority  was  inextricably 
bound  up  with  it.  Obedience  to  God  and  to  His  Pro- 
phet was  the  keystone  of  the  arch,  and  that  obedience 
must  be  absolute  and  unconditional.  We  have  seen 
more  than  once  to  what  lengths  the  devotion  of  his 
followers  went.  All  old  ties,  however  sacred,  were 
severed  if  they  conflicted  with  the  Prophet's  commands ; 
secret  murder,  treacherous  attack,  abuse  of  hospitality, 
— all  were  praiseworthy  if  practised  in  his  service. 
He  had  already  made  laws  on  most  of  the  great  interests 
of  civil  and  domestic  life,  he  had  secured,  by  his 
generosity,  his  clemency,  and  his  power,  tlie  hearts  of 
his  people,  and  the  finances  of  his  state  were  firmly 
grounded  in  the  principles  of  the  "  royal  fifth  "  and  the 

137 


138       MUHAMMAD   AND   HIS   POWER 

tithe  of  the  increase,  given  to  sanctify  the  believer's 
wealth. 

His  first  step  now  was  to  send  out  regular  collectors 
to  gather  in  the  tribute.  This  was,  in  almost  every 
case  promptly  and  cheerfully  paid,  but  the  tribe  of 
Tamusa  made  opposition.  They  were  at  once  sharply 
punished,  and  many  prisoners  brought  in  to  Medina. 
Tlie  tribe  sent  envoys  to  make  submission,  and  to 
redeem  the  captives,  and  succeeded,  after  professing 
Islam.  After  a  contest,  thoroughly  Arab  in  spirit,  in 
eloquence,  they  confessed  themselves  vanquished,  and 
submitted  without  reserve.  Muhammad  took  occasion, 
from  the  loud  freedom  of  their  address,  to  forbid  such 
liberties  for  the  future,  and  to  direct  that  the  Prophet 
should  be  addressed  only  in  low,  respectful  tones,  as 
became  his  high  office  and  dignity.  His  receptions 
were  held  in  the  great  Mosque,  and  there,  in  the 
presence  of  the  people,  he  received  deputations,  gave 
judgments,  and  issued  his  sovereign  commands.  The 
want  of  outward  state  in  no  way  lessened  the  reality 
of  his  power,  and  his  sway  was  absolute  and  daily 
extcndinof:  from  Yaman  and  Hadramaut  and  Oman, 
from  the  borders  of  Syria  and  Persia,  envoys  crowded 
to  own  his  power  and  secure  his  favour.  Among  in- 
dividual converts  of  note  must  be  named  Adi,  son  of 
Hatim,  the  famous  chief  of  Tai,  together  with  his  tribe, 
half  idolatrous  and  half  Christian,  and  Kab,  son  of 
Zuhair,  the  famous  poet  of  Mecca.  This  ninth  year 
after  the  Flight  is  known  in  Muslim  annals  specially  as 
the  "  year  of  deputations." 

At  this  time  rumours  of  great  preparations  by  the 
Roman  power  against  him  reached  Muhammad  at 
Medina,  and  he  resolved  to  strike  the  first  blow.      The 


TREATIES  WITH   CHRISTIAN   CHIEFS     139 

way  was  long  and  desert,  and  many  refused  the  call  to 
arms.  Some,  especially  men  of  Medina,  were  exempted, 
but  the  desert  tribes  were  straitly  commanded  to 
join  the  army.  Great  enthusiasm  was  shown  by  the 
majority,  and  the  money  contributions  were  most 
liberal;  many  volunteers  too  had  to  be  refused,  as 
they  could  not  be  mounted  and  equipped;  and  soon 
Muhammad  took  the  field  at  the  head  of  the  largest 
army  he  had  ever  led, — no  less  (it  is  said)  than  30,000 
men,  of  whom  10,000  were  horse.  They  marched 
north  through  the  arid  valley  of  Hajar,  but  were 
forbidden  to  drink  of  its  wells,  lest  they  should  be 
partakers  in  the  sins  of  the  old  inhabitants,  the  impious 
tribe  of  Thamud.  Thence  they  passed  on  to  Tabuk, 
not  far  from  the  Gulf  of  Ay  la,  and  found  the  rumours 
of  invasion  false.  Accordingly  Muhammad  detached 
Khalid  with  a  strong  body  of  cavalry  against  the 
Christian  chief  of  Duma  (Jauf),  who  was  surprised 
and  brought  in  to  Medina,  where  he  embraced  Islfim ; 
the  other  Christian  chiefs,  and  especially  John,  Prince 
of  Ayla,  submitted  to  the  Prophet  himself  at  Tabuk, 
and  received  from  him  letters  of  protection  and  treaties 
of  alliance,  fixing  their  tribute,  and  taking  them  bound 
to  help  all  Muslim  travellers  and  traders. 

Muhammad  then  returned  from  Tabuk  to  Medina, 
and  declared  the  famous  ninth  Sura,  the  last  in  time  of 
the  Quran.  Therein  he  rebuked  and  denounced  those 
who  had  shrunk  from  sharing  the  toil,  the  "  Plypo- 
crites  "  of  Medina,  and  the  desert  Arabs ;  but  those  who 
repented  were  forgiven,  and  after  due  chastisement 
received  back  into  favour.  Then,  too,  he  razed  to  the 
ground  a  mosque  that  had  been  built,  with  sectarian 
views,  at  Quba;  and  pronounced  God's  curse  against 


I40       MUHAMMAD   AND   HIS   POWER 

tlie  builders.  At  this  time  death  removed  Abdallah  ibn 
Ubai,  the  Khazraj  chief,  who  would,  but  for  Muhammad  s 
coming,  have  been  king  in  Medina.  Him  the  Prophet 
had  always  treated  with  respect,  though  he  never  felt 
sure  of  his  allegiance,  and  now  he  prayed  over  him,  and 
walked  behind  the  bier.  Abdallah's  influence,  so  far 
as  we  know,  had  always  been  exercised  for  good,  and 
more  than  once  had  checked  Muhammad  in  his  revenge 
against  the  Jews. 

The  submission  of  Ta,if  has  now  to  be  told.  After 
the  siege  was  raised,  the  chief  Urwa  came  in  to 
Medina  and  joined  Islam,  and  then,  though  dissuaded 
by  Muhammad,  he  went  to  preach  it  to  his  own  people. 
They  slew  him,  but  were  soon  reduced  by  Malik  to 
such  straits  that  they  sent  an  embassy  of  submission. 
The  envoys  were  well-received;  Muhammad  himself 
taught  them  his  doctrine ;  and  at  length  they  were 
sent  back  firm  in  the  faith.  It  was  not  without  vain 
struggles  for  delay,  how^ever,  that  they  yielded  to  the 
destruction  of  their  great  idol  Lat,  and  to  the  "  degrada- 
tion" of  tlie  daily  prayers, — which  the  Prophet  de- 
clared to  be  indispensable. 

He  now  resolved  finally  to  clear  Mecca  from  all 
taint  of  idolatry,  and  for  that  purpose  he  sent  Abu 
Bakr  to  lead  the  annual  Pilgrimage,  and  Ali  to  declare 
the  Prophet's  will  at  its  close.  So  when  the  multitudes 
were  gathered  on  the  plain  of  Mina,  Ali  read  the 
ordinance,  forming  part  of  the  ninth  Sura.  The 
Prophet  proclaimed  himself  free  from  all  treaty  obliga- 
tions to  idolaters ;  after  four  months.  Believers  were 
free  to  make  war  upon  them  wheresoever  they  should 
find  them;  no  more  should  they  take  part  in  pil- 
grimage   to    the   Holy   House,   nor   profane    it   with 


THE  LAST  PILGRIMAGE  141 

pcagan  usages.  The  same  chapter  contains  Muhammad's 
declaration  of  war  against  Jews  and  Christians ;  he 
needed  them  no  more,  for  his  own  system,  so  largely 
borrowed  from  theirs,  was  now  established;  and  to 
them  was  now  left  only  the  choice  of  submission  or  the 
sword. 

During  the  two  years  that  followed,  embassies  of 
submission  came  in  from  every  side,  and  where  there 
was  still  opposition  to  Islam  it  was  crushed.  Najran 
yielded  to  the  arms  of  Khalid,  and  the  recalcitrant 
tribes  of  Yaman  to  those  of  Ali.  The  latter  just  com- 
pleted his  work  in  time  to  join  Muhammad  on  his 
Farewell  Pilgrimage  to  Mecca,  in  March  632,  three 
months  only  before  his  death. 

The  city  and  temple  of  Mecca  had  been  in  the 
previous  year  completely  purged  of  idolatry,  and  by 
All's  proclamation  idolaters  were  debarred  from  sharing 
in  the  Pilgrimage.  The  time  was  ripe  for  Muhammad 
to  lead  it  solemnly  himself,  to  lay  down  the  complete 
ritual  to  be  observed  in  ages  to  come,  and  to  take — as 
it  proved,  and  as  perhaps  he  expected — solemn  leave 
of  the  assembled  people,  as  Moses  had  done,  and  Joshua 
and  Samuel.  So  when  the  sacred  season  again  returned, 
the  month  Zu'l  Hijj,  "  first  of  months,"  when  the  Greater 
Pilgrimage^  with  its  fuller  rites  should  be  performed, 
Muhammad  set  out,  accompanied  on  this  occasion  by 
all  his  wives,  for  the  Holy  City  of  Mecca.  He  started 
five  days  before  the  month  began,  having  put  on  the 
pilgrim's  dress,  and  brought  victims  with  him — camels 
wreathed  for  the  slaughter.     A  vast  multitude  followed, 

^  Burton  says  that  the  term  "Greater  Pilgrimage"  is,  in  strictness, 
confined  to  cases  where  the  chief  day  (that  of  sacrifice)  falls  on  a 
Friday. 


142       MUHAMMAD   AND   HIS   POWER 

and  on  the  tenth  day  they  camped  one  march  from 
Mecca.  The  next  morning  he  entered  the  city  by  the 
northern  gate,  and  as  he  rode  in  he  prayed  :  "  0  Lord  ! 
increase  the  dignity  and  glory,  the  honour  and  rever- 
ence of  Thy  House ;  and  greatly  increase  the  honour 
and  dignity,  piety,  goodness,  and  glory  of  them  who 
for  Pilgrimage  (Greater  or  Lesser)  resort  thither  ! "  All 
the  great  multitude  performed  the  rites  of  the  Lesser 
Pilgrimage,  but  only  those  who  had  brought  victims 
were  allowed  to  share  in  the  further  rites  of  the 
Greater:  an  exception  was  made  for  Ali,  who  had 
joined  from  his  successful  expedition  to  Yaman,  and  to 
whom  the  Prophet  gave  a  share  of  his  own  victims. 
On  the  7th  day  of  the  month  he  preached  to  the 
multitude  at  the  Kaaba ;  on  the  8th  he  proceeded  to 
Mina  and  prayed ;  that  night  he  spent  in  his  tent,  and 
the  next  morning  passed  through  Muzdalifa  to  Mount 
Arafat.  There  he  prayed,  recited  from  the  Quran 
passages  on  the  rites  of  Pilgrimage,  and  concluded : 
"  This  day  have  I  ^  perfected  your  religion  for  you,  and 
fulfilled  My  mercy  upon  you,  and  appointed  Islam  to 
be  your  religion."  Again  he  spent  the  night  and 
prayed  in  Muzdalifa,  and  in  the  morning  with  many  a 
loud,  "  Labbaik ! "  he  hastened  to  Mina,  and  cast  the 
stones  at  Aqaba.  Thereafter  he  slew  his  victims, 
shaved  his  head,  and  pared  his  nails ;  the  pilgrim's 
dress  was  doffed,  the  flesh  of  the  victims  distributed  for 
feasting ; — and  the  Great  Pilgrimage  was  at  an  end. 

Three  days  longer  did  the  Prophet  remain  at  Mina, 

and  on  the  second  of  them  he  gave  a  solemn  address  to 

the  assembly.      He  bade  them, — "  Hearken,  for  it  may 

be  the   last   time !     Every   Muslim  is   brother  to  his 

^  Speaking  in  tlie  name  of  God. 


CLOSING  ADMINISTRATION  143 

fellow,  and  life  and  property  sacred  as  between  you, — 
sacred  as  this  month,  this  land,  this  Pilgrimage  !  The 
right  of  inheritance  is  inalienable !  Treat  well  yovir 
wives,  so  they  be  chaste, — for  they  are  as  captives  and 
prisoners  to  you  !  Your  slaves  also  ye  shall  use  well  ! " 
He  abolished  the  system  of  months  intercalated,  and 
restored  the  reckoning  of  the  year  by  twelve  lunar 
months  (Q.  ix.  37,  38), — a  system  which  has  ever  since 
been  the  law  of  Islam. 

Then  he  ended :  "  Verily,  0  my  people,  I  have 
fulfilled  my  mission.  I  have  left  among  you  a  plain 
command, — the  Book  of  God,  and  manifest  ordinances, 
the  which  if  ye  hold  fast  ye  shall  never  go  astray." 
And  the  people  answered,  "  Yea,  verily ! "  and  he 
prayed  the  Lord  to  bear  witness.  Then  he  returned  to 
Mecca,  performed  once  more  the  sevenfold  circuit, 
and  drank  of  the  well  Zemzem ;  once  more  he  prayed 
in  the  Holy  House;  and  then  after  three  days  he 
departed  to  Medina.  It  need  scarcely  be  said  that  the 
Prophet's  Pilgrimage  is  the  model  which  has  ever  since 
been  scrupulously  followed. 

With  the  return  to  Medina  began  the  eleventh  year 
since  the  Flight,  and  Muhammad  was  now  nearly 
sixty-three.  He  had  had  an  arduous  life  for  more 
than  twenty  years,  ever  since  he  proclaimed  himself 
the  Apostle  of  God,  and  it  is  no  wonder  if  his  iron 
frame  and  constitution  were  undermined.  In  April 
and  May  632  he  was  busied  in  issuing  despatches, 
appointing  governors,  and  arranging  the  administration 
throughout  Arabia.  The  territories  of  the  deceased 
Persian  governor  of  Yaman  he  divided  into  four  prov- 
inces. Also  there  started  up  to  trouble  him  three 
rival  pretenders  to  prophetic  power,— Tulaiha  in  Najd, 


144      MUHAMMAD  AND  HIS  POWER 

Musailima  in  Yamama,  and  Aswad  in  the  south. 
Orders  were  sent  out  at  once  to  crush  them,  but  could 
not  be  carried  into  effect  before  ]\Iuhammad  had  him- 
self passed  away.  The  last  warlike  expedition  which 
he  planned  was  a  great  one  against  the  Roman  border, 
the  special  aim  of  which  was  to  avenge  the  defeat  at 
Muta,  when  Zaid  fell ;  and  the  command  was  given  to 
Zaid's  son,  a  mere  youth, — who  was  bidden  :  "  Destroy 
thy  foes  utterly:  advance  speedily  and  cautiously; 
hasten  thy  march  that  thy  onset  may  precede  tidings 
of  thee;  and  tarry  not  after  victory  is  won."  The 
camp  was  formed  at  Jurf  on  the  1st  Muharram,  27th 
May  632,  but  the  army  did  not  start  till  after  the 
Prophet  was  dead.  He  bound  the  white  banner  on  its 
staff,  and  gave  it  to  Usama,  saying,  "  Fight  under  this 
banner  in  the  name  of  the  Lord  and  for  His  cause  ;  so 
shalt  thou  break  the  unbelievers  in  pieces  ! " 

The  end  was  nigh.  In  the  closing  days  of  May, 
Muhammad  suffered  much  from  fever,  headache,  and 
weakness.  With  the  consent  of  all  his  wives,  he  took 
up  his  abode  with  Ayesha,  his  best-beloved,  not  yet 
twenty  years  old.  The  details  of  his  last  sickness  it  is 
impossible  to  ascertain,  but  it  lasted — with  intervals  of 
relief — for  about  ten  days.  That  he  felt  his  life  was 
wearing  to  a  close  is  not  doubtful.  One  day  from  the 
Mosque  pulpit  he  told  his  people  :  "  Verily,  the  Lord 
hath  given  the  choice  to  one  of  His  servants,  whether 
to  enjoy  a  long  life  here,  or  to  go  to  meet  Him ;  and  he 
hath  chosen  to  meet  his  Lord."  No  one  understood 
save  Abu  Bakr ;  but  he,  with  the  quick  understanding 
of  deep  love,  at  once  replied,  "  May  we  and  our 
children  be  a  sacrifice  for  thee,  O  Prophet  of  God!" 
And  again  he  said  to  him  one  day,  "Ah,  thou   that 


LAST  ILLNESS  145 

art  dearer  to  me  than  father  or  mother !  alas,  grey 
hairs  are  hastenmg  upon  thee!"  And  the  Prophet 
answered,  "  The  toil  of  inspiration !  the  Suras  H€id, 
and  the  Striking,  and  their  fellows,  have  made  my  hair 
white."  One  night  he  rose  softly,  dressed,  and  passed 
out  to  the  graveyard,  where  rested  the  "  martyrs "  of 
Uhud.  For  a  while  he  mused;  then  he  blessed  and 
prayed  for  them,  and  thanked  God  that  they  had 
reached  the  promised  rest.  Then  as  he  went  home  he 
told  the  servant  who  followed  that  he  himself  was  soon 
to  share  that  rest. 

The  fever  was  sore  on  him,  and  henceforward — -until 
the  end  came — it  left  him  but  seldom.  Yet  he  struggled 
to  fulfil  his  public  duties,  led  the  prayers  in  the 
Mosque,  and  made  a  special  eftbrt  to  subdue  the  dis- 
content of  the  people  at  the  choice  of  a  commander  so 
young  as  Usama.  But  after  this  he  led  his  people  in 
prayer  no  more  again :  Abu  Bakr  was  named  to  take 
his  place,  seeming  thus  to  be  marked  out  as  his 
successor.  Special  care,  too,  he  showed  to  recommend 
to  kindly  usage  the  men  of  Medina,  who  had  harboured 
and  welcomed  him  in  his  need. 

On  the  Saturday  his  sickness  greatly  increased ;  on 
the  Sunday  he  seems  to  have  been  at  times  unconscious, 
but  he  asked  for  ink  and  paper  to  record  his  last  direc- 
tions,— which  for  some  reason  were  not  brought.  Almost 
his  last  act  was  to  bid  Ayesha  give  in  alms  the  little 
store  of  gold  he  possessed,  and  his  last  words  to  com- 
mand that  Islam  only  be  allowed  in  Arabia.  On  the 
Monday  he  rallied  so  far  as  to  be  able  to  walk  feebly 
to  the  Mosque,  while  Abu  Bakr  led  the  prayer ;  but  the 
effort  exhausted  him,  and  he  came  back  to  lay  his 
weary  head  on  Ayesha's  loving  breast.     His  strength 


146      MUHAMMAD  AND   HIS  POWER 

sank  rapidly,  and  with  broken  words  of  prayer  on  his 
lips,  and  calls  to  God  and  to  Gabriel,  amid  the  fond, 
faithful  soothing  of  his  young  wife,  his  spirit  returned 
without  a  struggle  to  God  who  gave  it. 

Ayesha  laid  his  head  softly  on  the  pillow,  joined  her 
fellow-wives,  and  gave  vent  to  her  grief.  The  news 
spread,  and  reached  wise  Abu  Bakr  and  fiery  Omar, — 
who  both  hastened  to  the  house  of  death.  Omar  raised 
the  cloth  from  the  face,  and  then  vehemently  swore 
that  the  Prophet  was  not  dead,  "  he  had  but  gone  like 
Moses  to  meet  his  Lord,  and  would  return."  But  Abu 
Bakr  followed ;  and  he  wept  as  he  gazed  on  his  dead 
friend,  and  blessed  him  with  tender  words.  Then  he 
rebuked  Omar,  and  carried  conviction  to  his  heart  by 
quoting  the  Prophet's  own  words  after  the  battle  of 
Uhud,  as  they  stand  to  this  day  in  the  Quran  (xxxix. 
30,  iii.  144) :  "  Verily,  thou  too  shalt  die  !  Muhammad 
is  no  more  than  an  Apostle ;  verily,  the  other  Apostles 
died  before  him."  And  he  added :  "  If  any  man 
worshippeth  Muhammad,  Muhammad  indeed  is  dead ; 
but  whoso  worshippeth  God,  let  him  know  that  the 
Lord  liveth  for  ever ! " 

But  public  matters  claimed  their  first  care.  The 
leaders  of  the  exile  went  to  the  great  hall  of  assembly, 
and  there,  after  brief  debate,  insisting  on  the  Prophet's 
oft-repeated  word  that  none  could  succeed  him  save  a 
man  of  the  noble  clan  of  Quraish,  Omar,  the  impetuous, 
clinched  the  matter  by  striking  the  hand  of  fealty  in 
Abu  Bakr's, — and  the  first  Khalifa  was  elected  to  rule 
the  thousands  of  Islam.  Then  Abu  Bakr  took  up  the 
burden  and  the  trust,  and  bade  the  peojole  obey  so  long 
as  he  walked  in  the  Prophet's  steps,  and  slay  him  if  he 
departed  therefrom. 


DEATH  AND   BURIAL  147 

Thereafter  they  returned  to  Ayesha's  chamher,  and, 
as  Muhammad  himself  had  bidden,  they  laid  him  to  rest 
where  he  had  died  ;  for  that,  he  had  said,  was  "  the 
ordinance  of  God  for  His  Prophets."  Simple  and 
solemn  were  the  rites :  they  praised  him  and  thanked 
God  for  his  mission,  and  placed  him  in  the  grave  lying 
on  the  red  mantle  he  had  been  used  to  wear.  In 
the  same  chamber  were  afterwards  laid  in  succession 
Abu  Bakr  and  Omar;  and  thither  now  resort,  in 
reverent  throngs,  Muslims  from  every  land,  as  to  a 
place  only  less  holy  than  the  sacred  Kaaba  itself ! 


CHAPTER  XI 

General  Eeview  of  Muhammad  and  liis  System  —  Personal 
Appearance,  Habits,  and  Cliaracter — His  Teaching— The 
Position  he  claimed  ^r  himself — The  Quran — The  Future  : 
Paradise  and  Hell  —  Keligious  and  Social  Laws  —  Moral 
Duties — Islam  and  Christianity. 

It  is  nearly  thirteen  hundred  years  since  the  Prophet 
of  Arabia  died,  but  the  religion  which  he  founded  still 
rules  the  hearts  and  lives  of  nearly  one-sixth  of  the 
human  race.  To  outward  appearance  Islam  is  one, 
though  inwardly  it  is  torn  into  many  sects  and  schools. 
The  magnetism  of  its  founder's  personality  has  endured 
through  all  generations,  and  the  short  symbol  of  his 
faith  has  lost  none  of  its  power.  Yet  of  him  we  have 
no  bust,  or  statue,  or  portrait,  for  such  things  he 
abhorred.  To  bring  before  us  his  outward  appearance, 
as  he  moved  among  men,  we  turn  to  the  description 
collected  from  the  Traditions.  "  The  Prophet  was  of 
middle  height,  spare  and  strong,  with  broad  shoulders 
and  wide  chest.  A  massive,  highly-developed  head  was 
covered  with  dark,  thick,  slightly  curled  hair,  that  fell 
to  his  shoulders.  The  face  was  ruddy,  the  long  eye- 
brows linely  arched,  divided  by  a  vein  which  throbbed 
visibly  in  moments  of  passion.  Black,  restless  eyes 
shone  out  under  long,  heavy  eyelashes ;  the  nose  was 
large  and  aquiline,  the  teeth  well-set  and  dazzlingly 


148 


CHARACTER  OF  MUHAMMAD        149 

white,  and  a  full  beard  framed  the  face.  He  had  a  clear, 
smooth  skin,  bright  complexion,  and  hands  soft  as  a 
woman's.  His  step  was  quick,  elastic,  firm,  '  as  one 
who  steps  down  from  a  high  place ' ;  in  turning  he 
turned  his  whole  body ;  and  his  wdiole  gait  and  pres- 
ence were  full  of  dignity.  His  countenance  was  mild 
and  pensive,  and  he  laughed  seldom,  but  his  smile  was 
very  w^inning.  '  Thou  wouldst  have  said,  a  sun  rising. 
I  saw  him  at  full  moon,  and  he  was  brighter  and  more 
beautiful  than  she.' 

"  In  habits  he  was  very  simple,  but  most  careful  of 
his  person,  especially  his  teeth.  In  eating  and  drinking, 
and  in  his  furniture,  he  retained  his  first  simplicity ; 
arms  he  valued,  and  rich  clothing  he  sometimes  did  not 
scorn ;  perfumes  he  loved,  and  liquor  he  hated.  Of  a 
highly  nervous  temperament,  he  shrank  from  bodily 
pain,  and  would  sob  and  roar  under  it.  Gifted  with 
mighty  powers  of  imagination,  he  had  great  elevation 
of  mind,  and  refined  delicacy  of  feeling.  To  his 
inferiors  he  was  most  indulgent,  and  scarcely  ever 
rebuked  his  servant ;  to  his  family  he  was  most  affec- 
tionate, and  he  loved  all  cliildren.  He  never  cursed, 
and  his  strongest  expression  was,  '  What  has  come  to 
him  ?  may  his  forehead  be  darkened  with  mud  ! '  He 
visited  the  sick,  followed  every  bier  he  met,  accepted 
even  a  slave's  invitation  to  dinner,  mended  his  own 
clothes,  w^aited  on  himself.  Never  was  he  first  to  with- 
draw his  hand  from  another's,  nor  to  turn  away  ere  the 
other  had  turned.  '  His  hand  was  the  most  generous, 
his  heart  the  most  courageous,  his  tongue  the  most 
truthful ;  staunchest  was  he  of  protectors,  and  sweetest 
in  conversation ;  and  he  inspired  all  men  with  awe  and 
reverence.'     He  was  taciturn  of  habit,  yet  playful  with 


150      MUHAMMAD  AND   HIS  POWER 

children,  but  not  given  to  jesting."  Such  is  tlie  picture 
drawn  by  the  hoving  pens  of  disciples,  to  whom  the 
minutest  acts  were  of  importance,  and  whose  highest 
aim  was  to  follow  the  Prophet  in  all  things.  Palgrave 
gives  a  wise  caution  when  he  says  that  the  ideals  of 
Arab  virtue  were  first  conceived,  and  then  attributed 
to  him.  Yet,  with  every  allowance  for  exas^o-eration, 
the  man  so  painted  was  of  very  high  and  noble  type. 
The  story  of  his  life  shows  him  to  have  been  of  daunt- 
less courage,  great  generalship,  strong  lo^'e  of  country ; 
by  nature  merciful  and  quick  to  forgive,  there  was 
neither  pity  nor  ruth  in  his  dealings  with  the  Jews, 
when  once  he  had  ceased  to  hope  for  their  submission. 
Over  and  over  again  he  approved  assassination,  when 
it  furthered  his  cause ;  however  barbarous  or  treacher- 
ous the  means,  the  end  justified  it  in  his  eyes  ;  and  in 
more  than  one  case  he  not  only  approved,  he  instigated 
the  foul  deeds. 

That  he  was  sincere  in  his  effort  and  desire  to 
reform  his  countrymen,  to  raise  them  from  the  dark- 
ness of  their  idolatry,  to  open  their  eyes  to  the  dread 
realities  of  the  after-life, — this  we  cannot  doubt.  But 
he  took  the  false,  fatal  step  of  proclaiming  himself  the 
Apostle  of  God,  specially,  continually,  exclusively 
inspired  from  on  high ;  to  support  and  justify  his 
ambitious  schemes,  his  sensual  indulgence,  his  jealousy, 
his  occasional  cruelty  and  treachery,  he  feared  not  to 
allege  the  commands  of  God ;  to  exalt  his  personal 
authority  he  used  the  Holy  Name,  on  the  most  trivial, 
as  on  the  gravest  matters  ;  and  at  length  he  practically, 
if  not  expressly,  assumed  to  abrogate  all  those  previous 
revelations  which  in  his  earlier  teaching  he  acknow- 
ledged to  be  wholly  divine.     The  main  outline   of  his 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  DOCTRINE      151 

system,  with  much  of  its  detail,  was  borrowed  from 
Judaism,  and  grafted  on  to  the  pagan  usages  of  Mecca, 
yet  he  professed  to  have  got  it  all  by  primary  revela- 
tion. The  great  downward  step  was  taken  when  he 
fled  to  Medina,  there  to  set  up  his  secular  kingdom,  and 
when  he  began  the  practice  of  polygamy,  after  losing 
his  loving  and  faithful  Khadija. 

Before  the  Flight,  Muhammad  had  only  a  com- 
mission to  warn  his  people,  at  Medina  he  became  in- 
vested with  authority  to  compel  submission  and  to 
visit  obstinacy  with  extreme  punishment.  He  was 
infallible  on  all  matters  of  faith  and  conduct,  belief 
in  "  God  and  Muhammad  the  Apostle  of  God "  was 
absolutely  required,  "obedience  to  God  and  to  His 
Prophet "  essential ;  nay,  he  delayed  his  answer  to  the 
simplest  as  to  the  weightiest  questions  "till  Gabriel 
should  instruct  him  "  of  the  will  of  God  in  the  matter. 
The  devotion  of  his  followers  during  his  lifetime  was 
quite  boundless,  scarcely  exceeded  by  the  "worship" 
now  paid  to  him,  as  Lane  found  it  in  Egypt  seventy 
years  ago  {M.  E.  p.  259).  What  the  effect  and  tend- 
ency of  his  personal  example  would  be  on  followers 
who  believed  that  example  perfect,  any  reader  of  his 
life  may  judge. 

Muhammad  throughout  his  life  always  disclaimed 
the  power  of  working  miracles,  but  his  followers  have 
ascribed  to  him  miracles  as  striking  and  as  varied  as 
those  of  God's  earlier  messengers  to  men.  His  only 
"  mighty  work  "  was,  he  said,  the  Quran,  sent  down  to 
him  from  heaven,  perfect  beyond  human  power  to  rival, 
an  all-sufficient  proof  and  seal  of  his  Apostleship.  He 
claimed  also  pre-eminence  over  all  other  Prophets, 
in  that — as  he  declared — their  messages  were  to  par- 


152       MUHAMMAD  AND   HIS  POWER 

ticular  peoples  or  races,  but  his  was  "  a  mercy  to  all 
mankind." 

The  foundation  of  faith  and  practice  for  Muslims  are 
the  Quran,  the  traditions  of  what  the  Prophet  com- 
manded or  did  apart  from  the  Quran,  the  consensus  of 
the  doctors  of  Islam,  and  analogy  or  deduction  from 
recognised  principles  in  the  former  sources.  The 
Quran  is  the  highest  authority,  the  very  "  Word  of 
God,"  which  the  Prophet  himself  declared  to  be  the 
all-sufficient  guide  for  his  followers.  It  was  not 
collected  till  some  years  after  his  death,  by  Zaid,  his 
secretary,  under  the  orders  of  Abu  Bakr,  at  the 
suggestion  of  Omar,  and  that  collection  was  revised 
(but  with  little  or  no  change)  under  the  third  Khalifa, 
Uthman,  and  became  the  authorised  version,  original 
copies  of  which  are  extant  to  this  day.  The  sub- 
stance of  the  chapters,  and  their  arrangement,  rest  on 
Muhammad's  own  directions.  By  far  the  greater  part 
had  been  set  down  in  writino^  durinsf  his  lifetime, 
much  even  in  the  early  period  of  his  preaching  at 
Mecca ;  but  the  records  were  dispersed,  and  gathered 
together  again,  as  the  old  report  has  it,  "  from  date- 
leaves,  and  tablets  of  white  stone,  and  from  the  hearts 
of  men."  The  most  scrupulous  care  was  exercised,  and 
the  universal  assent  with  which  the  result  was  accepted 
is  a  sufficient  guarantee  of  its  faithfulness.  But  the  one 
hundred  and  fourteen  chapters  into  which  it  is  divided 
are  arranged  entirely  without  any  reference  to  time  of 
revelation  or  to  subject-matter,  but  the  longest  chapters 
are  put  first  in  order.  Each  chapter  begins  thus : — "  In 
the  name  of  God,  Merciful  and  Gracious";  a  traditional 
heading  states  whether  the  Bura  (chapter,  "course  of 
masonry")  was  revealed  at  Mecca  or  Medina,  and  in 


THE  QURAN  153 

modern  editions  each  Chapter  is  divided  into  verses 
(ayat,  "  signs  "),  the  number  of  which  is  stated  in  the 
heading.  To  twenty-nine  of  the  chapters  are  prefixed 
certain  letters,  in  themselves  meaningless,  as  to  the  sig- 
nificance of  which  the  learned  are  at  a  loss.  Muslim 
doctors  give  them  deep  mystic  meaning,  but  Noldeke's 
ingenious  guess,  that  they  indicate  in  some  way  the 
sources  from  which  Zaid  collected  them,  is  probably 
not  far  from  the  truth.  The  same  scholar  has  also 
given  us  the  best  arrangement  that  is  now  possible  of 
the  Quran  in  its  chronological  order.  The  whole  book 
is  no  lonofer  than  two-thirds  of  the  New  Testament, 
and  apart  from  the  long  stories  of  the  patriarchs  and 
former  prophets  not  much  longer  than  the  Four  Gospels; 
yet  it  is  inexpressibly  tedious  to  read  through,  and — 
making  every  allowance  for  what  is  lost  in  translation 
— it  is,  with  some  exceptions,  immeasurably  below  the 
level  of  (e.g.)  the  Psalms  or  the  Book  of  Isaiah. 

The  earlier  preaching  abounds  in  splendid  ascriptions 
of  praise  and  glory  to  God,  extolling  His  boundless, 
unutterable  majesty  and  perfections.  The  people  are 
warned  of  the  awful  consequences  that  follow  after 
death  on  the  deeds  done  in  the  body ;  the  terrors  of 
the  Judgment-day,  when  all  flesh  shall  be  raised  again 
to  stand  their  trial  before  God  Almighty,  are  painted 
with  awful  vividness ;  and  the  eternal  rest  and  joy 
laid  up  in  store  for  believers,  with  the  endless  woes 
reserved  for  those  who  reject  the  Prophet's  message, 
are  set  forth  in  bright  and  alluring,  or  in  dark  and 
terrifying  hues.  But  the  one  satisfying  condition  for 
heaven  is  acceptance  of  the  Prophet's  message,  and  the 
one  damning,  unpardonable  sin,  that  hurls  the  soul  to 
eternal  torment,  is  the  rejection  of  it.     The  only  sin 


154      MUHAMMAD   AND   HIS  POWER 

that  God  will  not  i'orgive  is  "idolatry,"  admitting 
"partners"  to  His  glory;  and  as  the  doctrine  is  de- 
veloped it  passes  specially  into  reprobation  of  the 
whole  Christian  dogma.  The  delights  of  Muhammad's 
Paradise  are  just  such  sensual  joys  as  appealed  most 
strongly  to  the  Arab  mind, — peace  and  rest  under 
shady  trees,  with  ever-flowing  crystal  streams,  abund- 
ance of  all  manner  of  dainty  food  and  costly  dress, 
wine  that  should  cheer  the  heart  but  not  cloud  the 
brain,  and,  above  all,  dark-eyed  virgin  brides  (Huris), 
"  of  a  rare  creation."  Faithful  women  too  were  to 
have  their  reward  in  Paradise,  but  (as  Gibbon  sneers) 
their  happiness  is  left  to  be  imagined.  The  pains  of 
hell  are  similarly  described  as  terrible  heat,  excruciat- 
ing thirst,  food  and  drink  of  foul  and  detestable  things, 
— those  miseries  which  Arabs  most  dreaded,  "  that  they 
may  dwell  therein  for  aye,"  "  an  evil  journey  is  it "  to 
"  an  evil  abode." 

Very  briefly  now  I  shall  sketch  the  outline  of  the 
system  of  Islam,  in  its  religious,  social,  and  political 
working.  The  five  pillars  of  the  Faith  are  the  Creed, 
Prayers,  Fasting,  Almsgiving,  and  the  Pilgrimage. 
The  foundation-stone  (to  vary  the  metaphor)  is  to 
acknowledge,  "There  is  no  god  but  God,  and 
Muhammad  is  the  Prophet  of  God."  This  is  the  ke}^ 
to  heaven,  dying  with  this  on  his  lips  the  Muslim 
warrior  gains  the  glory  of  martyrdom,  it  is  the  refrain 
of  all  prayer  and  religious  service,  and  with  this  the 
captive  may  rescue  himself  from  slavery.  And  when 
the  Creed  has  been  accepted,  the  other  duties  follow. 
First  are  the  five  daily  prayers  at  absolutely  fixed 
times,  the  first  ere  the  sun  rises,  and  the  last  shortly 
before  midnight.    The  forms  of  prayer  and  the  postures 


RELIGIOUS  DUTIES  155 

are  prescribed,  and  they  consist  of  a  limited  liturgy 
from  the  Quran,  to  be  repeated  in  the  Arabic  tongue, 
with  frequent  ejaculation  of  "  God  is  great ! "  the 
Creed,  the  opening  chapter  of  the  Quran,  and  other 
pious  formulie.  Prayer  must  be  made  looking  towards 
Mecca,  and  must  be  preceded  by  washing,  for  which  in 
the  Traditions  the  most  minute  rules  are  laid  down, 
any  breach  of  which  renders  the  prayer  of  no  effect. 
Public  prayer  is  made  on  Friday  in  the  Mosque,  and 
the  call  from  a  lofty  slender  minaret  is  one  of  the  most 
attractive  formalities  of  Islam.  The  crier  (Muazzin) 
chants  the  call  with  loud,  well-modulated  voice,  and  the 
faitliful  who  hear  it  make  glad  response,  and  gather  to 
their  solemn  service.  Thus  it  runs :  "  God  is  o-reat ! 
God  is  great !  I  witness  that  there  is  no  god  but  God 
(twice) !  I  witness  that  Muhammad  is  the  apostle  of  God 
(twice) !  Come  to  prayer !  Come  to  prayer !  Come  to 
salvation  !  Come  to  salvation  ! "  {at  first  prayer  only). 
"  Prayer  is  better  than  sleep  (twice)  !  God  is  great !  God 
is  great !  There  is  no  god  but  God  ! "  Prayer  is  led  by 
an  Imam,  who  faces  towards  Mecca,  and  the  conofrep-a- 
tion  follow  him  exactly.  Only  men  gather  in  the 
Mosque,  and  Lane  {M,E.  chap.  III.)  testifies  that  in 
Egypt  "  women  seldom  pra}/-,  even  at  home."  Except 
for  public  prayer,  Friday  is  not  distinguished  from 
the  other  days  of  the  week.  At  the  midday  service  a 
sermon  is  also  delivered,  a  homily,  of  which  the  chief 
part  is  rigidly  prescribed,  wholly  in  Arabic,  formal  and 
sterile,  a  large  part  (obligatory)  being  taken  up  with 
repeated  blessings  on  the  Prophet,  his  family,  and  the 
first  four  Khalifas.  Prayers  for  the  dead  are  also 
highly  meritorious,  and  of  particular  efiicacy  is  it  to 
recite  or  have  recited  on  their  behalf  the  whole  of  the 


156       MUHAMMAD  AND   HIS   POWER 

Quran  (a  Zihr).  The  whole  earth,  said  IMuhammad,  is 
a  place  of  prayer ;  but  prayers  in  special  places — above 
all,  in  his  Mosque  at  Medina — had  an  immensely  higher 
value  than  elsewhere ;  and  if  any  prescribed  prayer  be 
omitted,  the  samie  prayer  must  be  said  when  it  is  re- 
membered. 

Next  in  order  comes  Fasting.  This  is  commended 
at  all  seasons,  but  commanded  only  in  the  month  of 
Ramadhan.  The  fast  is  during  the  hours  of  day,  from 
sunrise  to  sunset,  and  is  very  rigorous;  and  as  the 
lunar  year  makes  the  month  pass  through  all  the 
seasons,  it  presses  in  hot  climates  with  great  severity 
on  the  poor,  and  it  is  they  who  observe  it  most  strictly. 
At  the  end  of  the  fast  comes  the  great  Feast-day  {FiU% 
"breaking,"  in  Egypt  Bairdm),  which  is  celebrated 
with  the  utmost  rejoicing.  The  other  great  festival  of 
Islam  is  that  of  Azha,  when  victims  are  sacrificed, 
borrowed  and  altered  from  the  Jewish  Great  Day  of 
Atonement.  It  is  on  this  day  that  the  sacrifice  is  made 
in  the  Greater  PiWimafre. 

Almsgiving  is  highly  commended.  On  the  Feast- 
day  after  Ramadhan  it  is  obligatory,  but  alms  are  on 
that  day  to  be  bestowed  on  the  "faithful"  only. 
Abdul  Aziz  said,  "  Prayer  carries  us  half-way  to  God, 
fasting  brings  us  to  the  door  of  His  palace,  and  alms 
procures  us  admission." 

Pilgrimage  to  Mecca  is  a  duty  incund^ent  on  every 
free  Muslim  of  sufficient  means  and  bodily  strength 
once  in  his  lifetime.  The  merit  of  it  cannot  be  ob- 
tained by  deputy,  but  it  is  praiseworthy  to  send 
another  on  pilgrimage  if  prevented  from  going  oneself.^ 
The  ceremonies  are  strictl}^  those  performed  by  the 
^  For  full  details,  see  Burton's  Pilgrimage. 


SOCIAL  AND   POLITICAL  157 

Prophet.  In  modern  times,  especially  in  Persia,  India, 
and  Afghanistan,  pilgrimages  are  made  to  the  tombs 
of  Saints,  though  such  practices  were  absolutely  for- 
bidden by  the  Prophet. 

In  family  and  social  relations  Muhammad  commanded 
reverence  and  obedience  to  parents,  and  kindness  to 
wives  and  slaves.  The  salutation  of  "Peace,"  taken 
from  the  Jews,  is  to  be  given  to. a  fellow-Muslim  only. 
Slander  and  backbiting  are  strongly  denounced,  and 
even  false  evidence  is  allowed  to  hide  a  Muslim's  fault. 
Wine,  usury,  games  of  chance,  are  absolutely  forbidden, 
— and  not  less  the  making  of  images  or  pictures,  for 
"  God  will  at  the  Resurrection  call  on  their  maker  to 
put  life  in  them,  and  when  he  cannot,  will  cast  him 
into  hell."  Wives  may  be  taken  to  the  number  of  four 
at  a  time,  and  may  be  divorced  absolutely  at  the 
husband's  pleasure,  and  slave-mistresses  are  not  limited 
in  number.  The  consequences  of  this  licence  need  not 
be  dwelt  on, — Lane,  Burton,  Palgrave,  and  others  bear 
ample  witness  to  it.  The  seclusion  of  women  is  com- 
manded, the  husband  is  expressly  allowed  to  chastise 
and  confine  them  ;  in  many  cases  their  evidence  is  not 
admitted,  and  when  it  is  two  women's  evidence  is  only 
worth  that  of  one  man  !  So  long  as  half  the  millions 
of  Islam  are  thus  degraded,  social  progress  is  impossible, 
yet  the  degradation  rests  on  the  express  commands  of 
the  Quran. 

In  matters  political  Islam  is  a  system  of  despotism 
at  home  and  of  aggression  abroad.  The  Prophet  com- 
manded absolute  submission  to  the  Imam.  In  no  case 
was  the  sword  to  be  raised  ag-ainst  him.  The  rio-hts 
of  non-Muslim  subjects  are  of  the  vaguest  and  most 
limited  kind, — and  a  religious  war  (Jihad)  is  a  sacred 


158       MUHAMMAD   AND   HIS   POWER 

duty  whenever  there  is  a  chance  of  success.  Hopeless 
warfare  is  not  enjoined,  and  it  is  to  this  we  owe  the 
absence  of  revolt  in  India.  To  the  general  precept 
has  been  due  the  disastrous  wars  in  the  Soudan,  the 
massacres  in  Crete,  in  Bulgaria,  in  Armenia,  and  the 
frequent  troubles  in  the  north-west  border  of  India. 
Slavery  too  is  partly  a  social,  and  partly  a  political 
institution.  It  has  the  express  sanction  of  the  Prophet, 
though  kindness  to  slaves  is  enjoined,  and  it  is  praise- 
worthy to  set  them  free.  How  the  system  works  in 
real  life  let  the  slave  trade  of  Africa  and  the  savage 
raids  of  Turkestan  declare  ! 

There  is  another  most  important  sphere  of  human 
life  in  which  the  stagnant  and  fanatical  spirit  of  Islam 
has  wrought  incalculable  woe,  as  has  in  these  last  days 
in  India  been  brought  into  awful  prominence.  The 
wise  measures  of  Government  to  prevent  the  spread 
of  the  dread  scourge  of  plague,  especially  in  crowded 
cities  like  Lucknow  and  Bombay,  have  been  hindered, 
resisted  even  to  murder  of  officials,  and  to  a  large 
extent  paralysed; — and  the  reason  is,  the  inviolable 
seclusion  of  Muslim  women,  imposed  as  a  religious 
duty  by  Muhammad.  We  have  seen,  in  former  chapters, 
how  jealousy  and  selfishness  lay  at  the  root  of  this  part 
of  the  law,  to  which  are  sacrificed  the  lives  of  thousands, 
and  the  happiness  of  millions  throughout  the  world  ! 

A  few  words  must  be  said  in  the  end  of  this  chapter 
as  to  the  relations  of  Christianity  and  Islam.  Muham- 
mad's knowledge  of  Christianity  was  vague.  He 
imagined  that  Christians  worshipped  Christ  and  the 
Virgin  together  with  God  the  Father.  Admitting  the 
Incarnation,  he  denied  the  Divinity  of  Our  Lord,  His 
Sonship,   and   the   Atonement   of   His   death    on   the 


CHRISTIANITY  AND   ISLAM  159 

Cross ;  indeed,  he  denied  that  Jesus  had  been  put  to 
death  by  the  Jews,  adopting  the  heresy  that  He  had 
been  snatched  away  from  their  hands  and  carried  up 
to  heaven  without  dying,  and  is  to  come  again  to 
restore  Isldiii  before  the  consummation  of  all  things. 
Muhammad  also  taught  that  his  own  message  super- 
seded that  of  Christ,  as  a  more  perfect  and  a  final 
revelation  of  the  will  of  God.  "By  their  fruits  ye 
shall  know  them  " :  Christianity  teaches  the  Father- 
hood of  God  and  the  brotherhood  of  all  mankind,  it  has 
taught  mercy  and  compassion  and  forbearance  for  all, 
and  love  to  all  men ;  it  has  raised  woman  to  her  proper 
place  as  the  equal  of  man;  and  it  has  established 
absolute  toleration  wherever  it  prevails.  Islam  is  a 
restricted  brotherhood,  intolerant  of  all  outside  it, 
degrading  and  enslaving  women.  The  nations  of 
Christendom,  in  so  far  as  they  follow  their  Master, 
constantly  advance  and  extend  the  cause  of  mercy, 
righteousness,  peace,  and  civilisation;  but  Islam,  the 
more  closely  it  follows  the  Prophet,  the  more  it  stag- 
nates and  oppresses,  as  in  Turkey,  Morocco,  and  Persia. 
Tried  by  the  test  of  comparison,  Islam  is  a  retrogression, 
not  an  advance ;  and  the  self-styled  Prophet,  whether 
himself  sincere  or  not,  is  condemned  by  his  "  fruits  "  as 
an  impostor ;  nor  will  the  Christian  fail  to  see  that  by 
St.  John's  test  he  is  the  Antichrist,  "which  denieth 
the  Father  and  the  Son  ! " 


CHAPTER  XII 

Sketch  of  the  Early  Conquests  of  Islam — Abu  Bakr  first  Khalifa 
— Arabia  revolts — False  Prophets  arise — Rebellion  crushed 
— Siege  of  Medina — Reduction  of  Yaman,  Hadramaut,  etc. — 
Operations  of  Khalid — Musailima  "the  Liar"  defeated  and 
slain  at  Yamama — First  Collection  of  the  Quran  by  Zaid — 
First  Foreign  Conquests — Persia— Hira — Reverses — Death  of 
Abu  Bakr — Succession  of  Omar — Khalid  deposed — Great 
defeat  of  the  Arabs  by  Bahman — Victory  of  Muthanna — 
Conquest  of  Persia — Qadisij^a — Siege  and  Capture  of  Madain 
— Jalaula — Founding  of  Kufa  and  Basra — Conquest  of  Syria  : 
Damascus,  Jerusalem — Conquest  of  Egypt  by  Amru — Re- 
opening of  Canal  to  Red  Sea — Domestic  Administration — 
"Year  of  Ashes"  —  Code  and  Pension-List  —  Hijra  Era — 
Degradation  of  Morals — Assassination  of  Omar  :  his  Char- 
acter. 

It  is  necessary,  in  order  to  see  how  Muhammad's  power 
continued,  and  his  spirit  lived  and  worked  in  his  first 
followers,  to  trace  very  briefly  the  course  of  events 
under  his  earliest  successors,  —  Abu  Bakr,  Omar, 
Uthman,  and  Ali.  Of  these  only  the  first  had  a 
peaceful  end :  the  others  fell,  each  in  his  turn,  by  the 
assassin's  dagger,  a  fate  that  in  later  ages  has  overtaken 
scores  of  their  successors  in  all  Muslim  lands  from 
Yarkand  and  Kabul  to  Constantinople  and  Morocco. 
There  is  a  further  reason  for  this  in  the  fact  that  the 
Quran,  which  at  Muhammad's  death  was  left  scattered 
like   the   Sibyl's   oracles,  was  collected   and   stamped 

160 


STRIFE  IN   MEDINA  i6i 

with  finality  under  the  earlier  Khalifas,  and  that  the 
great  Schism,  which  has  ever  since  divided  Ishim  into 
two  hostile  camps,  hating  one  another  as  bitterly  as 
both  hate  Christians,  was  founded  under  the  fourth. 
The  task  of  making  a  brief  outline  of  the  history  is 
lightened  by  the  fact  that  original  authorities  are  few 
and  meagre,  and  have  been  thoroughly  examined  and 
used  by  AVeil  and  Muir  in  their  histories  of  the  period. 
My  own  sketch  is  nothing  more  than  a  summary.  I 
should  also  caution  the  reader  that,  in  order  to  avoid 
breaking  up  the  thread  of  the  story,  the  arrangement 
is  not  always  strictly  chronological.  One  domain  of 
conquest  is  rounded  off  before  another  is  taken  up. 

As  has  been  already  told,  as  soon  as  Muhammad  was 
dead,  and  before  he  was  buried,  the  chiefs  of  the 
Muslim  refugees,  with  Abu  Bakr  and  Omar  at  their 
head,  saw  that  it  was  necessary  to  ta^ke  immediate 
steps  to  elect  as  successor  a  chief  whom  all  parties 
would  obey.  There  had  always  been  smouldering 
jealousy  between  the  men  of  Medina  and  those  of 
Mecca.  The  former  had  never  quite  got  rid  of  the 
feeling  that  the  latter  were  strangers  and  interlopers : 
on  many  occasions  Muhammad  had  shown  to  his  own 
townsmen  marked  favour,  the  harsh  and  cruel  treat- 
ment of  the  Jews  had  left  rankling  memories  behind, 
and  there  was  a  large  body  still  left  of  those  he  had 
called  "  Hypocrites,"  —  half-hearted  converts,  though 
these  had  greatly  lost  in  power  since  the  death  of 
Abdallah  ibn  Ubai.  So,  on  a  hint  from  some  of  their 
friends  that  mischief  was  afoot,  Abu  Bakr  and  Omar 
hurried  at  the  head  of  their  followers  to  the  great  hall 
of  Medina,  where  already  a  meeting  of  citizens  was 
gathered.  The  case  was  critical :  if  a  chief  were 
II 


1 62      MUHAMMAD  AND  HIS  POWER 

elected,  outside  the  circle  of  Muhammad's  immediate 
friends,  it  would  mean  strife  and  disunion,  and  per- 
haps the  ruin  of  Islam.  But  the  citizens  seemed 
resolved  to  choose  one  of  themselves,  when  Abu  Bakr 
and  Omar  appeared,  and  loudly  declared  that,  honour- 
able and  famous  though  the  men  of  Medina  were, 
Arabia  would  accept  as  head  and  leader  none  save  a 
member  of  the  tribe  of  Quraish. — "  Then  let  there  be 
one  chief  for  us,  and  one  for  you."  "  Nay,"  was  the 
statesmanly  answer,  "  there  can  be  but  one  head."  And 
the  choice  was  set  between  Abu  Bakr  and  Omar,  when 
the  latter  solved  the  doubt.  "  Stretch  forth  thy  hand," 
he  said,  and  struck  his  own  upon  it  in  pledge  of  fealty. 
The  rest  at  once  followed  his  example,  citizens  as  well 
as  Refugees,  and  Abu  Bakr  was  elected  first  Khalifa, 
or  successor  to  the  Prophet.^ 

Abu  Bakr  was  beyond  doubt  the  worthiest  and  fittest 
to  succeed  his  beloved  Master.  The  light  of  prophecy 
had  ceased  with  Muhammad,  the  new  religion  was 
firmly  planted,  and  the  sage,  calm,  clear  spirit  of  Abu 
Bakr  was  well  qualified  to  deal  with  the  problem  of 
confirming  and  extending  the  infant  state.  He  was  a 
year  or  two  younger  than  Muhammad,  somewhat  short 
and  spare;  his  thin  face,  with  high,  clear  forehead, 
sharp,  aquiline  nose,  and  deep-set  eyes,  showed  him  to 
be  of  the  noblest  Arab  type.  His  temper  was  firm  but 
mild,  his  faith  in  his  Master  absolute  and  unquestion- 
ing ;  from  earliest  days  he  had  shared  his  dangers  and 
his  counsels,  and  had  spent  an  ample  fortune  in  his 
cause.  He  had  been  clearly  marked  out  by  Muhammad 
as  his  successor,  when  he  was  named  to  lead  the  Mosque 

1  The  title,    Commander  of  the   Faithful,   familiar  in  the  Arabian 
Kiglits,  was  taken  by  Omar. 


ELECTION  OF  ABU  BAKR  163 

services,  and  he  took  up  the  burden  of  rule  resolutely. 
In  his  first  address  to  the  people,  he  said,  "  0  people,  I 
am  now  your  Chief,  though  not  the  most  worthy.  If 
I  do  well,  follow  me  ;  if  ill,  set  me  right.  Follow  after 
truth,  and  cast  away  falsehood.  Even-handed  justice 
will  I  mete  out  to  you  to  the  uttermost.  Fight  stead- 
fastly in  the  cause  of  the  Lord.  Obey  me  as  I  obey 
the  Lord  and  His  Prophet ;  else,  obey  me  not." 

In  this  spirit  he  acted  throughout;  his  one  end 
was  to  carry  out  to  the  letter  every  purpose  of  his 
Master. 

Equally  severe  to  himself  and  to  others  in  all  cases 
of  strict  justice,  he  refused  to  Fatima  the  inheritance 
of  some  lands  which  she  claimed,  but  of  which  she 
could  not  prove  an  absolute  destination  to  her  by  her 
father.  There  is  no  ground  for  believing  that  Ali  at 
this  time  pretended  to  the  succession,  but  there  is  no 
doubt  that  he  did  not  cordially  support  Abu  Bakr,  and 
Fatima's  disappointment  would  intensify  his  discontent. 
She,  however,  survived  but  a  few  months,  and  it  is  not 
till  after  the  murder  of  Omar  that  Ali  showed  any 
open  opposition  to  the  Chief  of  Islam. 

When  Muhannnad  w^as  seized  by  his  last  illness  he 
had  just  organised  an  expedition  for  war  on  the  Syrian 
frontier,  specially  to  avenge  the  reverse  at  MCita  and 
the  death  of  his  faithful  Zaid.  The  command  had 
been  given  to  Zaid's  son  Usama,  a  young  and  untried 
man,  and  the  army  lay  encamped  at  Jurf,  close  to 
Medina,  till  after  the  Prophet's  death.  Abu  Bakr  was 
urged,  but  unsuccessfully,  either  to  delay  the  expedi- 
tion, in  view  of  the  threatening  aspect  of  affairs  nearer 
home,  or  to  entrust  the  command  to  some  better  known 
leader.     But  Usama  went,  fulfilled   his  mission  with 


1 64       MUHAMMAD  AND   HIS  POWER 

brilliant  success,  and  returned  after  about  two  montlis 
to  Medina. 

Abu  Bakr  had  chosen  the  bold  course,  and  success 
justified  him.  On  all  sides  the  tribes  were  rising  in 
revolt  when  he  sent  away  from  Medina  his  only  organ- 
ised army.  The  desert  tribes  resisted  the  tax-gatherers 
whom  Muhammad  had  sent  out,  the  whole  of  Central 
Arabia  was  in  open  rebellion,  and  there  had  sprung  up 
three  rival  pretenders  to  the  prophetic  office  —  the 
"  Veiled  Prophet "  in  Yaman,  whose  career  was  cut 
short  by  assassination,  Musailima  in  Yamama,  and 
Tulaiha  in  the  north-east.  The  Khalifa  faced  all 
his  foes  without  quailing.  He  refused  to  negotiate, 
strengthened  Medina  as  best  he  could,  gallantly  repelled 
an  assault  on  it,  and  routed  the  attacking  force.  This 
turned  the  tide  in  his  favour,  the  chiefs  who  had 
hesitated  brought  in  their  tithes  and  made  submission, 
and  Islam  was  saved  ! 

Arabia  had  now  to  be  reconquered  for  the  Faith. 
Usama  was  left  in  Medina,  and  Abu  Bakr  had  to  carry 
out  his  Master's  dying  charge,  "Throughout  Arabia 
there  shall  be  no  second  creed."  He  himself  first 
chastised  the  rebel  tribes  in  battle  at  Rabaza,  con- 
fiscated their  lands  for  ever,  and  then  finally  returned 
to  Medina,  from  which  he  henceforth  directed,  without 
sharing  them,  the  operations  of  war  and  conquest. 
The  chief  "  Companions  "  of  the  Prophet  remained  in 
Medina  with  the  Khalifa,  to  share  his  counsels,  and  new 
men,  of  whom  the  chief  was  Khalid,  son  of  Walid,  led 
the  armies.  He  was  now  sent  against  Tulaiha,  being 
a  brave  and  skilful  leader,  who  did  incalculable  service 
to  Islam,  as  formerly  he  had  been  its  most  dreaded  foe. 
His  valour  and  success  earned  him  the  name  of  the 


RECONOUEST  OF  ARABIA  165 

Sivord  of  God,  but  liis  fame  is  marred  by  a  savage 
nature  and  by  cruelty  whicli  more  than  once  called 
down  the  censure  of  Muhammad  and  Abu  Bakr,  and  at 
length  ruined  him  when  Omar  became  Khalifa.  As 
Khrdid  advanced,  the  tribes  were  overawed  and  joined 
his  force,  which  without  much  difficulty  routed  Tulaiha ; 
whereupon  the  revolted  tribes  gave  in  their  submission. 
Abu  Bakr  followed  Muhammad  in  politic  clemency, 
and  pardoned  them  freely,  though  he  made  a  few 
terrible  examples. 

Khalid  had  now  a  harder  task  before  him.  He  first 
scattered,  not  without  cruelty  and  bloodshed,  the  forces 
of  Malik,  and  then  passed  on  his  w^ay  against  Musai- 
lima.  This  man  had  been  in  rivalry  and  collision  with 
Muhammad  himself,  with  whom  he  claimed  to  divide 
the  Peninsula,  as  being  a  Prophet  of  Allah  equally 
with  him.  The  claim  was  scornfully  rejected,  and 
the  claimant  dubbed  "The  Liar."  He  was  a  man  of 
considerable  abilit}^,  and  was  enthusiastically  supported 
by  the  great  Hanifa  tribe  and  their  allies.  Attacked 
by  the  Prophetess  Sajah  from  Mesopotamia,  he  dis- 
armed her  by  making  her  his  wife,  and  then  bribed  her 
to  o;o  home  ag-ain  to  her  own  land  !  He  had  defeated 
one  Muslim  army,  and  now  went  to  meet  Khalid.  The 
foes  met  at  Aqraba,  or  Yamama ;  a  fierce  and  terrible 
battle  followed,  in  which  there  fell  no  less  than  700 
Muslims,  among  them  many  of  the  chief  "  Companions," 
and  a  somewhat  less  number  of  the  enemy;  Musai- 
lima  was  slain  by  the  same  hand  that  at  Uhud  had 
laid  Hamza  low ;  and  victory  remained  with  Khalid. 

It  was  after  this  great  slaughter  that  Omar  strongly 
urged  the  Khalifa  to  have  the  Quran  collected  and 
written  down,  lest  any  of  tlie  Oracles  of  God  should  be 


1 66      MUHAMMAD  AND   HIS   POWER 

lost.  The  task  was  committed  to  Zaicl,  Muhammad's 
secretary,  and  the  first  recension  made,  and  committed 
to  the  charge  of  Hafsa,  daughter  of  Omar  and  widow 
of  Muhammad.  This  continued  to  be  the  authorised 
standard  till  the  days  of  Uthman.  It  was  then  found 
that  discrepancies  had  arisen,  mainly  of  pronunciation, 
and  not  affecting  the  substance.  A  new  commission 
was  appointed,  consisting  of  Zaid  and  three  of  the 
most  learned  Quraish ;  their  revision  was  pronounced 
authoritative ;  all  other  copies  were  called  in  and 
burnt ;  four  transcripts  were  made,  and  placed  in  four 
of  the  chief  cities  of  Islam ;  and  the  text  of  the  Quran 
then  settled  has  remained  unchanged  and  unquestioned 
to  the  present  day.  Its  correctness  is  sufficiently 
vouched  by  the  fact  that  no  rival  interest,  whether  of 
Ali  or  any  other,  cast  doubt  upon  it,  in  spite  of  ample 
opportunity.  This  recension  of  the  Quran,  though  not 
perfected  in  his  own  reign,  and  the  complete  sub- 
jugation of  Arabia  to  Islam,  were  the  great  achieve- 
ments of  Abu  Bakr.  Yaman,  Hadramaut,  and  the 
provinces  that  border  on  the  Persian  Gulf  yielded 
to  the  arms  of  Ikrima  and  Khalid,  and  then  the  armies 
of  Islam  prepared  for  conquest  beyond  their  own  land, 
and  the  Bedouin  hordes  flocked  to  its  banner,  athirst 
for  plunder  and  slaughter. 

Accordingly,  the  beginning  of  foreign  conquest  also 
falls  into  Abu  Bakr's  reign.  The  first  attack  was 
made  upon  Persia.  Khalid  and  Muthanna  advanced  to 
tlie  Euphrates,  and  summoned  Hurmuz  the  Persian 
governor  to  embrace  Islam,  to  submit  and  pay  tribute, 
or  to  stand  the  attack  of  a  people  that  "  loved  death  as 
he  loved  life."  A  battle  followed,  known  to  IMuslim 
liistory  as  the  "  Battle  of  the  Chains,"  from  a  story 


FOREIGN  CONQUEST  167 

that  part  of  the  Persian  army  was  chained  together ; 
Hurmuz  himself  was  slain  in  single  fight  by  Khalid ; 
victory  fell  to  the  Arabs,  and  great  and  valuable  booty 
rewarded  their  valour,  and  stimulated  their  passions. 
Victory  upon  victory  followed,  though  each  field  was 
stubbornly  contested ;  at  Allis,  south  of  the  Euphrates, 
Khalid  celebrated  his  success  by  an  awful  massacre; 
Hira  accepted  tribute  and  submission,  but  remained 
Christian  ;  and  a  regular  Arab  protectorate  was  estab- 
lished. Thus  once  more  the  power  of  Persia  was 
broken,  thougli  the  end  was  for  a  few  years  delayed ; 
once  more  her  brave  but  unwieldy  hosts  failed  before 
her  fierce  foes,  as  a  thousand  years  earlier  they  had 
failed  in  the  shock  of  battle  at  the  Granicus  and 
Arbela. 

Khalid  had  next  to  help  to  victory  his  less  for- 
tunate namesake  in  Central  Arabia,  and  then  the  com- 
bined armies  swept  up  the  Mediterranean  coast,  and 
crowned  their  triumphs  with  the  capture  of  Hims  and 
Damascus.  The  latter  did  not  fall  without  a  desperate 
resistance,  and  a  great  battle  was  fought  almost  under 
its  walls;  the  brave  garrison  was  at  last  forced  to 
yield;  multitudes  of  citizens,  who  had  escaped  before 
the  city  fell,  were  pursued  and  ruthlessly  massacred  by 
Khalid.i 

Meanwhile  Muthanna,  left  to  govern  Hira  with  a 
small  army,  had  been  hard  pressed,  and  was  compelled 
to  seek  reinforcements.  Abu  Bakr  prepared  to  send 
them,  but  before  they  could  start  the  Khalifa  was 
dead,  and  by  his  appointment  Omar  reigned  in  his 
stead.  Abu  Bakr  died  as  he  had  lived,  in  simple  un- 
questioning faith  and  devotion  to  his  beloved  Master ; 

^  See  the  a^Yful  story  as  told  bj  Gibbon,  chap.  li. 


1 68       MUHAMMAD  AND   HIS  POWER 

he  had  well  and  worthily  ruled  the  infant  state  of 
Islam,  and  did  it  the  highest  service  when  he  cast  the 
reins  of  command  into  the  strong  hands  of  Omar. 
Simple  and  austere  in  his  life,  the  rich  spoils  of  Syria 
and  Persia  had  fallen  unvalued  into  his  hands ;  wisely 
generous  for  all  public  wants,  he  spent  only  what  was 
strictly  necessary  on  himself,  and  died  poor,  though  he 
had  spent  an  ample  fortune  for  the  good  of  the  new 
Faith.  He  died  on  24th  August  634,  after  a  reign  of 
little  over  two  years,  and  had  led  the  Pilgrimage  to 
Mecca  in  the  spring,  following  therein  exactly  the 
routine  which  Muhammad  had  laid  down.  His  last 
illness  was  the  effect  of  a  chill  caught  while  bathing, 
and  it  rapidly  took  a  fatal  turn.  When  he  died,  he 
was  laid  out  and  buried  as  simply  as  the  Prophet 
himself,  beside  the  Master  he  had  loved  so  well,  in  the 
chamber  of  Ayeslia.  There,  too,  the  last  of  the  three, 
was  Omar  laid  when  his  time  came ;  and  it  is  told  of 
Ayesha  that  she  went  thither  unveiled  so  long  as  only 
her  husband  and  her  father  lay  there,  but  that  she 
covered  her  face  when  Omar,  too,  was  her  silent  truest. 

Omar's  first  care  was  to  reinforce  Muthanna  in  Iraq, 
but  at  the  same  time  he  deposed  Khalid  from  the  chief 
command.  Muhammad  himself  and  Abu  Bakr  had 
both  been  alive  to  the  savage  and  lustful  nature  of  that 
great  warrior ;  several  times  they  had  severely  rebuked 
him,  but  shrank  from  punishing  him ;  and  it  was  left 
for  the  stern  justice  of  Omar  to  rem.ove  him  from  the 
command  which  his  skill  and  valour  had  adorned,  but 
which  his  callous  cruelty  had  so  often  stained. 

After  fealty  had  been  sworn  to  Omar,  a  large  force 
was  sent  off  under  Abu  Ubaid  to  help  Muthanna,  and 
that  able  general  hurried  back  in  advance  of  them  to 


ABU   UBAID   DEFEATED  169 

his  government  of  Iraq.  Before  the  auxiliary  army 
could  reach  him,  he  had  won  a  brilliant  victory.  Abu 
Ubaid's  force  met  with  disaster:  a  great  army  was 
assembled  by  the  new  king  of  Persia,  Rustam,  under 
the  command  of  Bahman.  Many  war  elephants  marched 
with  the  great  host,  their  huge  bulk  carrying  terror  to 
the  Arab  soldiery  as,  long  before,  those  of  Pyrrhus  had 
to  the  legionaries  of  Rome;  and  the  great  jewelled 
banner  of  the  Persian  Empire  was  unfurled  in  sign  of 
the  importance  of  the  struggle.  Abu  Ubaid,  fresh 
from  his  two  brilliant  victories,  prudently  withdrew  his 
comparatively  small  force  of  10,000  men  to  the  right 
bank  of  the  Euphrates ;  but  he  could  not  resist  a 
challenge  to  cross  and  give  battle  on  the  farther  side, 
where  the  nature  of  the  ground  hampered  his  move- 
ments. A  grave  disaster  followed.  Abu  Ubaid  himself 
was  trampled  to  death  by  a  mighty  elephant  he  had 
attacked,  the  leaders  he  had  named  to  take  his  place 
fell  one  after  another,  and  the  whole  force  was  in 
danger  of  annihilation  through  the  breaking  down  of 
the  bridge  of  boats.  With  great  difhculty  Muthanna, 
who  had  taken  command,  restored  the  brido-e,  and, 
though  himself  severely  wounded,  drew  off  the  remnant 
to  the  farther  side.  Four  thousand  Muslims  had 
perished  in  battle,  by  drowning,  or  in  flight;  two 
thousand  fled  to  their  homes  in  Arabia,  and  the  re- 
mainder were  allowed  to  withdraw  unmolested  to  Allis, 
where  Muthanna  entrenched  himself,  as  troubles  in 
Madain,  the  capital  of  Persia,  compelled  Bahman  to 
return  there. 

Omar  received  the  news  of  defeat  calmly,  and  com- 
forted the  fugitives.  Reverse  only  steeled  his  purpose, 
and   nerved    him   to   greater   effort.     The   victory   at 


170       MUHAMMAD  AND   HIS  POWER 

Yarmuk  had  settled  the  fate  of  Syria,  and  every  avail- 
able man  was  sent  to  Muthanna's  aid.  The  reinforce- 
ments were  no  sooner  come  than  that  great  captain, 
warned  that  a  strong  Persian  army  was  again  advancing 
to  attack  him,  again  marched  to  the  Euphrates  to  give 
battle  at  Buwaib,  not  far  from  where  Kiifa  was  soon  to 
be  built.  He  allowed  Mahran,  the  Persian  general,  to 
lead  his  whole  army  across.  Both  sides  then  pre- 
pared for  battle,  and  Muthanna  heartened  his  men 
with  stirring  words,  and  made  ready  to  attack.  The 
Persians  delivered  the  first  blow,  and  their  fierce  onset 
for  a  space  threw  the  Muslims  into  confusion.  But  the 
Arab  army  rallied  desperately,  and  hurled  back  their 
assailants.  The  battle  raged  fiercely;  the  Persians 
were  driven  back  upon  the  river,  and  their  retreat 
being  cut  off,  fought  with  the  courage  of  despair; 
Mahran  fell,  and  at  last  victory  crowned  the  Arab 
arms.  It  was  costly  but  complete,  and  the  booty  won 
was  enormous.  Christian  tribes  contributed  greatly  to 
tlie  Arab  success,  and  won  respect  for  their  religion. 
But  the  jealousy  of  Jarlr,  to  which  Omar  paid  too 
much  respect,  robbed  Muthanna  of  the  prize  he  had  so 
nobly  earned ;  he  was  superseded  in  Iraq,  which  he  had 
conquered  for  Islam,  and  died  not  long  after  of  the 
effects  of  his  wounds.  He  was  succeeded  by  Saad,  son 
of  Malik,  a  relative  of  the  Prophet  (he  was  a  nephew  of 
Khadija)  renowned  as  he  who  "shed  the  first  blood 
in  Islam."  Rapidly  advancing,  Saad  was  met  by 
]\Iuthanna's  brother,  who  brought  tidings  of  his  death 
and  his  last  counsel,  to  await  the  Persian  attack  on  the 
west  side  of  the  river,  with  a  safe  retreat  in  case  of 
defeat  to  the  friendly  desert.  This  advice  he  followed, 
and  awaited  the  reinforcements  which  were  hurrying 


BATTLE  OF  OADlSIYA  171 

to  his  help  from  all  quarters  of  Arabia  and  from 
Syria. 

Rustam  came  on  with  a  mighty  host,  under  strict 
orders  from  the  new  Kino^  of  Persia,  Yazdao-ird,  to 
engage  the  Arabs  without  delay.  The  situation  bristled 
with  difficulties.  The  Persian  subjects  in  the  invaded 
territory  threatened  to  join  the  enemy  if  they  were  not 
protected ;  on  the  other  hand,  the  Persian  general  had 
hopes  that  delay  might  break  up  the  Arab  forces,  for 
want  of  supplies.  He  was,  however,  compelled  to  go 
forward.  By  Omar's  command  envoj^s  were  sent  to 
summon  the  Persian  monarch  to  choose  among  the 
alternatives — "  Islam,  tribute,  or  the  sword  " ;  but  they 
were  sent  back  with  scornful  words,  and  the  irreat 
army  went  to  the  decisive  battle  of  Qadisiya.  At  the 
head  of  120,000  men,  with  horse  and  elephants,  he 
crossed  over  to  engage  the  enemy,  who  numbered  not 
much  more  than  one-fourth  of  his  host.  Saad  himself 
was  prevented  by  illness  from  mounting  a  horse,  and 
this  was  a  discouragement  to  his  men ;  but  his  dis- 
positions for  the  battle  were  most  able,  he  fired  the 
Arabs  with  the  Prophet's  clarion- words  on  the  triumph 
at  Badr,  and  the  signal  for  attack  was  the  Muslim 
battle-cry,  "  Great  is  the  Lord  ! " 

The  battle  raged  for  four  successive  days,  and  the 
issue  of  the  first  was  disheartening  to  the  Muslims. 
On  the  second,  prodigies  of  valour  were  performed,  and 
the  balance  of  advantage  was  slowl}^  won ;  the  third 
was  marked  by  the  discomfiture  of  the  elephants,  which 
by  brilliant  and  daring  attacks  were  forced  back  on 
the  Persian  hosts,  carrying  with  them  confusion  and 
dismay  ;  but  on  the  fourth  day  Rustam  himself  was 
slain,  desperate  attacks  broke  the  whole  Persian  line  of 


172       MUHAMMAD  AND   HIS   POWER 

battle,  and  defeat  was  soon  turned  into  a  rout.  The 
Muslim  loss  was  counted  by  thousands,  but  tliat  of  the 
enemy  exceeded  it  fourfold.  The  spoil  of  every  kind 
taken  was  enormous,  and  the  blow  to  the  military 
power  of  Persia  was  fatal.  Rapid  messengers  carried 
the  great  news  by  relays  to  Medina,  and  the  heart  of 
Omar  was  made  glad  with  the  tidings  of  victory. 

In  the  following  year  Saad  advanced  steadily  on 
tlie  capital,  Madain,  past  the  world-famous  ruins  of 
Babylon,  across  the  plain  of  Dura,  where  long  before 
the  golden  image  of  Nebuchadnezzar  was  set  up.  The 
tribes,  as  he  advanced,  went  over  to  his  side,  and  many 
months  were  spent  ere  he  reached  the  great  capital. 
The  sieo^e  was  lon«:  and  stubborn,  for  the  swift  Tio-ris 
formed  a  natural  ditch ;  but  all  obstacles  were  at  last 
surmounted  by  the  dauntless  Arabs,  and  the  capital  of 
Persia  fell.  The  spoil  was  rich  beyond  reckoning  or 
belief,  and  the  royal  gift  sent  to  Medina  filled  the 
public  treasury  to  overflowing,  and  made  the  "  Com- 
panions" and  citizens  generally  rich.  The  king  of 
Persia  fled  with  the  renniant  of  his  power  to  the 
mountainous  country  in  the  west,  and  the  ritual  of 
Islam  was  established  in  the  stately  halls  of  his  palace. 
The  conquest  of  Eastern  Persia  was  completed  some 
years  later,  after  another  terrible  battle  at  Nahawand, 
when  Persia  made  her  final  effort  to  hurl  back  the 
Arab  invasion.  Yazdagird  sought  refuge  in  obscurity, 
and  the  royal  line  of  Persia  flickered  out. 

The  victor}'^  of  Qadisiya  was  followed  by  another  at 
Jalaula,  and  then  the  conquered  provinces  were  settled 
by  the  wise  policy  of  Omar,  the  native  cultivators  being 
retained  on  the  land,  and  the  great  cities  of  Kufa  and 
Basra  (Bussorah)  founded  for  tlie  Arab  conquerors,  who 


KUFA  AND  BASRA  173 

settled  there  in  large  numbers.  Kufa  was  founded 
near  Hira,  the  ancient  capital  of  the  old  Christian 
principality,  and  became,  in  place  of  Madain,  the  seat  of 
government  for  Persia;  Basra,  at  the  head  of  the 
Persian  Gulf,  became  ere  long  a  great  seat  of  commerce. 
Not  very  willingly  did  Omar  give  leave  for  the  build- 
ing of  cities  for  the  conquering  Arabs;  he  commanded 
that  all  dwellings  should  be  simple,  and  he  compelled 
Saad  himself  to  pull  down  the  gateway  he  had 
built  before  his  palace.  Both  the  new  cities  were 
amply  dowered  from  the  tribute  of  the  country  around  ; 
they  grew  rapidly  in  wealth  and  importance,  and  their 
rivalries  and  factions  were  fatal  to  the  best  interests  of 
Islam. 

While  Saad  had  been  warring  in  the  east,  Abu 
Ubaid  and  Khalid  had  reduced  Syria  and  Palestine: 
after  that,  Amru  conquered  the  rich  land  of  Egypt, 
which  became  for  Arabia — what  it  had  been  for  the 
Roman  Empire — the  great  granary ;  and  last  of  all  the 
conquest  of  Persia  was  completed.  Thus  when  Omar 
died  there  had  been  added  to  the  domain  of  Islam 
Egypt  and  Syria,  Palestine  and  the  whole  land  of 
Persia ;  nor  was  the  Muslim  power  in  that  vast  tract  of 
country  again  seriously  disturbed  till  the  time  of  the 
Crusades,  when,  at  intervals,  for  the  space  of  two 
centuries,  the  warriors  of  Christendom  strove,  but  in 
vain,  to  wrest  from  infidel  hands  the  cradle  of  our 
faith. 

After  Damascus  liad  fallen,  the  Arab  forces,  ably  led 
by  Abu  Ubaid  and  Khalid,  gradually  defeated  and 
wore  down  in  many  hard-fought  fields  the  armies  of 
Heraclius.  One  stronghold  after  another  yielded  to 
siege  and  assault,  and  at  Icngtli  the  Emperor  himself 


174       MUHAMMAD  AND   HIS  POWER 

in  despair  withdrew  across  the  Bosphorus,  abandoning 
the  fair  Asiatic  provinces  of  his  empire,  after  well-nii^h 
seven  centuries  of  Roman  rule.  From  the  coast-hmds 
of  Syria  Amru  turned  his  arms  against  the  Roman 
general,  Artabim,  won  a  great  and  bloody  victory  at 
Ajnadain,  and  laid  siege  to  Jerusalem,  a  city  scarcely 
less  holy  in  Muslim  than  in  Christian  or  Jewish  eyes. 
The  Patriarch  was  forced  to  treat,  but  stipulated  to 
deliver  up  the  city  only  to  the  Khalifa  in  person.  On 
receiving  the  message,  Omar  at  once  set  out,  travelled 
with  the  utmost  speed  and  simplicity,  "  mounted  on  a 
red  camel,"  which  carried  his  provision  of  dates  and 
water,  sharply  rebuked  the  luxury  and  state  of  the 
commander  who  came  to  meet  him,  and  received  with 
noble  clemency  the  surrender  of  the  Holy  City.  He 
showed  much  delicacy  and  consideration,  both  for 
Patriarch  and  people,  laid  the  foundation  of  the  mosque 
which  to  this  day  bears  his  name,  and  returned  with  as 
little  state  as  he  came. 

In  the  following  year  (638  A.D.)  a  last  great  effort 
was  made  to  shake  oft'  the  Arab  yoke  in  Northern 
Syria,  but  it  ended  only  in  the  more  complete  subjuga- 
tion of  the  country.  But  the  close  of  the  conquest 
brought  also  the  downfall  of  Khalid,  who  had  had  the 
chief  share  in  it.  Accused  of  luxury  and  malversation, 
he  was  summoned  by  Omar  to  Medina,  and  there  he 
was  degraded,  stripped  of  his  wealth,  and  left  to  die 
some  years  after  in  penury  and  neglect.  There  seems 
justice  in  his  bitter  complaint  that  the  Khalifa  had 
used  him  till  he  needed  him  no  more,  and  then  punished 
him,  in  reality  for  offences  long  since  condoned ;  but  it 
may  be  that  fuller  knowledge  would  quite  clear  Omar 
of  the  stain  of  ino^ratitude. 


CONQUEST  OF  EGYPT  175 

The  third  and  last  great  field  of  conquest  in  Omar's 
reign  was   Egypt.      Lying   contiguous   on  its  north- 
eastern borders  with  the  peninsula  of  Sinai,  to  which 
the  Prophet  himself  had  led  an  expedition ;  famous  in 
Arab  history  and  sacred  legend ;  renowned  through  all 
time    for   riches,   learning,    and    fertility, — it    offered 
temptation  irresistible  to  the  ambition  of  Amru,  the 
great    general   who    had    in    a    few   years    subdued 
Palestine   and  Syria.      Not  without  difficulty  he  got 
from  his  cautious  and  unaggressive  master  leave   to 
attempt  the  conquest.     Church  feuds,  only  more  bitter 
as  they  less  concerned  the  essentials  of  religion,  had 
made  the  people  ill-disposed  to  their  Byzantine  rulers, 
while  ruthless  taxation  drove  them  to  despair.      The 
occasion  was  favourable  to  the  invaders,  especially  as 
they   had   so   often   overcome  the  best  armies  of  the 
Empire.      Amru  therefore  advanced  from  Palestine  by 
the  easternmost  branch  of  the  Nile,  in  the  end  of  640 
A.D.     After  several  minor  victories,  in  one  of  which  fell 
Artabim,   his    old    opponent    in    Syria,   he    captured 
Memphis,  or  Misr,  and  gave  terms  to  the  city  and  its 
governor  Maqauqas,  who  in  years  gone  by  had  sent  to 
Muhammad  Mary  the  Copt  and  her  sister.     He  then 
moved  down  to  Alexandria,  and  without  much  difficulty 
reduced  that  important  city  and  seaport  also;    then, 
returning    by  Omar's    command  to  Upper  Egypt,  he 
founded  the  camp-city  of  Fustat,  which  soon  extended 
and  grew  into  imperial  Cairo,  the  chief  glory  of  which 
is  to  this  day  Amru's  splendid  mosque.    The  conqueror 
followed  his  master's  wise  policy,  confirmed  the  native 
cultivators  on  the  land,  and  reopened  the  old  navigable 
canal  that  connected  the  Nile  with  the  Red  Sea,  whereby 
former  work  of  ancient  Pharaohs  Avas  made  to  serve 


176       MUHAMMAD  AND   HIS  POWER 

the  needs  of  Arabia.  Again  the  cautious  moderation 
of  the  Khalifa  checked  the  ambition  of  his  lieutenants, 
and  for  long  Alexandria  was  used  only  for  defence,  and 
not  for  attack  on  the  Roman  Empire.  Once  established 
in  Egypt,  however,  Islam  had  taken  the  first  step  in 
that  great  westerly  advance  which  was  not  checked 
before  the  great  victory  of  Tours,  a  hundred  years 
later,  and  its  dominion  still  lasts  over  the  whole  north 
littoral  of  Africa,  where  once  were  some  of  the  most 
famous  homes  of  Christianity. 

The  rule  of  Omar  was  not  less  successful  at  home 
than  abroad.  As  already  noticed,  the  first  collection  of 
the  Quran,  begun  under  Abu  Bakr,  was  completed  in 
his  time,  and  the  manuscript  committed  to  the  custody 
of  his  daughter  Hafsa.  Following  out  what  he  be- 
lieved to  be  the  Prophet's  wish,  if  not  his  direct 
command,  he  drove  from  their  homes  in  Arabia,  but 
not  without  fitting  compensation,  all  Jewish  and 
Christian  tribes  who  would  not  embrace  Islam. 
Beyond  Arabia,  however,  his  dealings  with  both  these 
religions  were  marked  by  so  much  mercy  and  fairness, 
that  we  can  have  little  doubt  that  his  action  within 
Arabia  was  dictated  by  motives  of  sound  policy. 
Arabia  was  to  be  the  stronghold  and  recruiting-ground 
for  the  armies  of  Islam,  tribal  jealousies  were  hard 
enough  to  deal  with,  and  he  felt  that  it  was  indispens- 
able that  the  bond  of  religion  should  be  unbroken. 
Muslim  tradition  attributes  to  his  "  Code "  a  whole 
system  of  severe  and  degrading  tyranny,  with  just  as 
little  ground  as  Roman  orators  referred  later  legal 
dcJCtrines  to  the  Laws  of  Numa. 

In  pursuance  of  his  plan  to  keep  the  Arabs  a  race 
apart,  a  warrior  people,  they  were  all  carefully  num- 


OMAR'S  REFORMS  177 

bered,  registered,  and  classed.  Priority  in  the  faith, 
martial  descent,  and  spiritual  eminence  alone  gave  rank 
in  the  brotherhood  of  Islam,  and  the  various  pensions 
(which  were  hereditary)  were  allowed  from  the  vast 
spoils  of  their  rich  conquests, — ranging  from  the  large 
sums  given  to  the  "Mothers  of  the  Faithful" 
(Muhammad's  widows)  to  the  small  allowances  of  the 
rank  and  file. 

The  year  639  A.D.,  the  fifth  of  his  reign,  is  known  as 
the  "Year  of  Ashes,"  when  for  nine  months  plague 
and  famine  desolated  Arabia  and  the  neighbouring 
countries.  When  the  trial  was  past,  the  Khalifa 
journeyed  through  Syria  to  settle  the  administration, 
and  replaced  Abu  Ubaid,  carried  off  by  the  plague,  by 
Muawiya,  the  son  of  Abu  Sufiyan,  an  able,  resolute, 
unscrupulous  man,  which  choice  afterwards  caused 
the  first  split  in  Islam.  Omar  regularly  led  the 
Pilgrimage  to  Mecca,  and  at  one  of  his  visits  he  laid 
out  the  great  square  round  the  Kaaba,  where  now  is 
the  many-colonnaded  House  of  Prayer.^  He  also  fixed 
the  Muhammadan  era  of  the  Hijra,  beginning  from 
the  1st  of  Maharram  622  A.D.,  the  year  being,  by 
Muhammad's  command  at  the  Farewell  Pilgrimage, 
reckoned  as  of  twelve  lunar  months.  He  was  a  ruler 
of  stainless  integrity,  great  courage,  and  unflinching 
resolve,  and  his  justice  is  proverbial.  Zealous,  even  to 
the  death,  for  the  laws  of  his  Master,  he  time  after  time 
removed  and  degraded  his  highest  officers  for  trivial 
infractions  of  the  law.  Khalid,  and  Saad,  and  Mughira 
felt  the  lash  of  his  anger ;  yet  riches  and  luxury  com- 
bined with  the  unnatural  restraints  of  Muhammad's 
law  to  sap  the  foundations  of  morality,  and  it  is  from 
^  For  a  minute  deseriptiou,  see  Burton's  Pilgrimage. 
12 


i;8       MUHAMMAD  AND   HIS  POWER 

Omar's  reign  that  dates  the  decadence  of  Muslim  social 
life.  A  multitude  of  slaves,  and  a  plethora  of  wealth  cast 
the  conquering  race  into  the  lap  of  luxury ;  debarred 
from  wine,  games  of  chance,  and  other  relaxations 
natural  to  man,  with  unbounded  choice  within  the 
harem,  to  which  their  women  were  confined,  the 
degradation  of  both  sexes  could  not  fail  to  advance 
with  fatal  rapidity.  Drunkenness  and  every  kind  of 
debauchery  defied  even  the  strong  hand  of  Omar  to 
restrain  them,  and  he  himself  fell  by  the  hand  of  a 
murderer,  a  Persian  slave,  who  stabbed  him  in  the 
great  Mosque  of  Medina,  as  he  opened  the  solemn 
service.  He  died  firm  in  the  Faith,  leaving  behind  him 
a  great  name,  the  fame  of  a  wise  ruler,  and  the  empire 
of  Islam  firmly  established.  The  Shias,  who  abominate 
the  first  three  successors  of  the  Prophet,  are  peculiarly 
bitter  against  the  memory  of  Omar,  because  (no  doubt) 
of  his  unquestioned  greatness.  Burton  also  is  less  than 
just  to  him,  and  calls  him  "  little  better  than  a  self- 
righteous  formalist,"  while  in  his  eyes  Ali  is  the  "  first 
man  of  genius  to  wear  the  Prophet's  mantle." 


CHAPTEE    XIII 

Election  of  Utliman — Discontent  of  Ali — The  Khalifa's  weakness 
and  unpopularity — His  Character  and  his  difficulties — Seeds 
of  Schism — Turbulence  of  Kufa  and  Basra — Successes  in 
Egypt — Changes  of  Governors — Nepotism — Discontent  and 
Conspiracy — Open  Rebellion — Uthman  besieged  in  his  own 
palace  and  assassinated — Ali  elected — Revolt  of  Zubair  and 
Talha — Aj^esha — Battle  of  the  ^'  Camel  " — Defiance  by  Mua- 
wiya — Kufa  chosen  as  Capital — March  against  Muawiya — 
Battle  of  SifFin — Truce  and  Arbitration — The  Award — Fresh 
War — Peace  with  Muawiya — Loss  of  Egypt — The  Khari- 
jites — Murder  of  Ali — Election  and  Abdication  of  Hasan — 
Muawiya  sole  Khalifa — Yazld — Hasan — March  to  Kufa — 
Karbala — "Martyrs"  of  Christianity  and  Islam. 

Abu  Bakr  and  Omar  had  each  given  a  daughter  in 
marriage  to  the  Prophet,  and  the  next  two  Khalifas 
were  his  sons-in-law.  As  we  have  seen,  Omar  had  been 
named  to  the  succession  by  Abu  Bakr  on  his  deathbed, 
and  now  the  choice  was  left  by  him  to  five  electors,  of 
w^hom  every  one  (save  only  his  son  Abdul  Rahman) 
aspired  to  the  office.  Omar  had  solemnly  warned  them 
all  against  ambition  and  self-seeking,  but  that  did  not 
prevent  jealousy  and  intrigue ;  and  at  length,  on  the 
day  limited  by  him,  Uthman  was  proclaimed  successor. 
Ali  resented  the  choice,  but  took  the  oath  of  allegiance ; 
and  thenceforward  there  were  two  parties  in  Islam. 
The  policy,  pursued  by  both  former  Khalifas  and  con- 
tinued by  Uthman,  of  keeping  in  Medina,  as  a  sort  of 

170 


i8o      MUHAMMAD  AND   HIS  POWER 

standing  council,  the  chief  Companions,  instead  of  em- 
ploying their  energies  in  war  and  foreign  conquest, 
was  hazardous,  and  was  now  to  bear  bitter  fruit. 
Even  the  stron^f,  self-reliant  Omar  had  more  than  once 
unwisely  yielded  to  popular  clamour.  Uthman  was 
naturall}^  weak,  yet  obstinate,  and  had  never  had  the 
same  commanding  place  and  influence  with  Prophet 
and  people  as  the  first  two  Khalifas,  though  personally 
he  had  been  a  favourite  with  Muhammad.  Besides,  he 
was  now  old,  and  had  to  reckon  with  personal  envy 
and  ambitions  which  had  sprung  up  with  the  expan- 
sion of  Islam.  Omar  had  lost  a  powerful  chief  from 
his  side  by  insisting  on  a  poor  Bedouin's  right  of 
retaliation,  while  Uthman's  first  act  was  to  refuse  to 
execute  justice  on  a  murderer.  In  the  light  of  what 
followed,  it  is  strange  to  find  Ali  insisting  on  punish- 
ment. The  son  of  Omar,  misled  by  a  false  report,  that 
the  assassin  of  his  father  had  just  before  the  murder 
been  seen  in  close  conference  with  a  Persian  slave  and 
with  the  Persian  prince  Harmuzan,  slew  them  both. 
There  was  no  evidence  against  them  whatever,  and  the 
murder  of  the  prince,  who  was  a  convert  to  Islam,  de- 
manded the  penalty  of  death.  Uthman,  however, 
shared  the  general  feeling  of  horror  that  father  and 
son  sliould  be  cut  ofl"  as  in  one  day ;  so  he  remitted  the 
penalty  of  death,  and  compelled  the  relatives  to  accept 
the  bloodwit.  But  though  this  act  was  in  harmony 
with  the  people's  will,  much  else  in  his  life  and  reign 
was  far  otherwise.  In  particular  he  alienated  their 
sympathies  by  advancing  and  favouring  his  own  rela- 
tives, yielding  at  times  unreasonably  to  popular 
clamour,  yet  showing  in  other  matters  petulant 
obstinacy, — as  when  he  changed  and  added  to  some 


CHARACTER  OF  UTHMAN  i8i 

of  the  ceremonies  of  the  annual  Pilgrimage  to  Mecca, 
and  would  give  no  reason  for  his  action  other  than 
that  such  was  his  pleasure.  He  changed,  and  changed 
more  than  once,  every  one  of  the  able  lieutenants  of 
Islam,  save  only  Muawiya,  who  was  a  relative  of  his 
own,  and  Muawiya  proved  a  firm  friend  and  support 
to  him  so  lonof  as  he  lived,  and  strove  to  the  utmost  to 
avenge  his  murder. 

The  first  cause  of  Uthman's  failure  as  a  ruler  will 
be  found  in  his  asfe.  When  he  succeeded  Omar  he  was 
already  past  seventy,  and  he  came  in  the  stead  of  a 
man  nearly  twenty  years  younger,  a  man  of  singular 
vigour  both  of  mind  and  body.  The  problems  of 
empire  had  grown  with  startling  rapidity  in  the  ten 
years  of  Omar's  reign,  and  even  he  had  not  been  at  all 
times  equal  to  them ;  far  less  was  his  successor.  Omar 
had  always  been  ready  to  take  the  field,  and  had 
shrunk  from  no  toil  or  personal  hardship  in  the 
interests  of  his  people,  nor  would  he  brook  the  least 
breach  of  his  commands,  or  of  the  law  of  Islam; 
inflexibly  just,  yet  without  a  trace  of  cruelty,  his 
ablest  and  strongest  lieutenants  stood  in  awe  of  him, 
and  laid  down  honours  and  commands  at  his  bidding. 
When  he  fell,  all  was  changed.  The  years  that  had 
elapsed  since  last  Medina  was  threatened,  just  after 
the  Prophet's  death,  had  done  much  to  enervate  the 
citizens,  and  the  Companions  of  Muhammad,  men  of 
renown  for  war  and  counsel  in  his  days,  had — through 
long  inaction — the  "  native  hue  of  resolution  sicklied 
o'er."  There  were  besides  two  special  causes  of 
division  in  the  kingdom,  the  rivalry  of  the  Quraisli 
with  the  rest  of  the  Arabs,  and  that  of  the  family  of 
the  Prophet  (the  "  sons  of  Hashim  "),  now  represented 


1 82      MUHAMMAD  AND  HIS  POWER 

by  Ali  and  liis  sons,  and  that  of  Umaiya,  to  wliicli 
Utlimfin  belonged.  At  the  head  of  the  former  party 
was  Ali,  whose  skill  and  bravery  had  lain  inactive 
since  the  Prophet's  death,  and  who  had  sunk  into  the 
dangerous  luxury  of  the  harem  ;  naturally  ambitious, 
we  cannot  doubt  that  he  chafed  at  his  inaction.  As 
time  went  on,  he  was  encouraged  by  the  general  dis- 
content, he  could  not  forget  that  he  had  only  just 
missed  the  succession ;  and  he  was  flattered  b}^  the 
high  claims  put  forward  on  his  behalf  by  preachers  of 
sedition,  who  urged  a  divine  right  of  succession  in- 
herent in  the  Prophet's  family,  of  which  he  was  the 
head.  Moreover,  among  Uthman's  bitterest  enemies 
were  sons  of  his  predecessors ;  and  the  dangerous 
elements  in  Kufa  and  Basra  increased  the  difficulties 
of  his  task;  Kufa,  in  addition,  was  jealous  of  the 
Syrian  province, — so  that  strife  broke  out  when  re- 
inforcements had  to  be  sent  from  the  west  to  complete 
the  conquest  of  Persia,  delayed  both  by  insurrection 
and  by  Turkomand  invasion. 

In  Egypt  the  Khalifa  won  through  his  lieutenants 
brilliant  successes,  but  the  displacing  of  Amru  by 
Abu  Sarh,  his  own  foster-brother  and,  at  one  time, 
Muhammad's  secretary,  was  most  unpopular.  Even 
the  conquests  in  North  Africa,  the  reduction  of 
Cyprus,  and  a  great  naval  victory  over  the  Byzantines, 
did  not  allay  the  discontent.  In  Kufa  matters  went 
from  bad  to  worse.  Saad  had  been  replaced  in  office 
immediately  after  Omar's  death ;  but  he  ruined  himself 
by  extravagance,  and  his  successor — Walid,  son  of 
Uqba,  one  of  the  prisoners  massacred  after  Badr,  had 
to  be  deposed,  recalled,  and  scourged  for  flagrant 
drunkenness.     Similarly,    at    Basra,    Uthman    unfor- 


QURAN  REVISED  183 

tunately  replaced  Abu  MCisa,  who  had  fallen  a  victim 
to  faction,  by  a  young  cousin  of  his  own  ;  and  this 
man  increased  his  master's  unpopularity  by  filling  all 
offices  with  his  own  relatives.  Another  young  kinsman, 
Said,  was  appointed  to  rule  Kufa,  a  man  whose  father 
had  also  fallen  at  Badr  fighting  against  the  Prophet. 

All  these  matters  combined  to  rouse  hostility  against 
Uthman,  and  to  their  fire  fuel  was  added  by  his 
action  in  regard  to  the  Quran.  The  recension,  not 
long  completed  under  Omar,  had  suffered  corruption  as 
it  was  copied  and  went  through  the  various  provinces 
of  the  empire ;  moreover,  differences  of  pronunciation 
had  arisen,  and  all  variations  from  right  reading  of  the 
very  "Word  of  God"  was  deadl^^  sin.  Accordingly, 
variants  were  called  in,  the  true  text  reconstituted  by 
a  commission  of  the  Quraish  on  a  comparison  w^ith  the 
original  in  Hafsa's  care ;  authentic  copies  were  made 
of  the  revised  text,  and  distributed  as  archetypes ;  and 
all  others  were  called  in  and  burnt.  On  this  was 
founded  by  the  malcontents  (especially  at  Kufa)  a 
charge  of  sacrilege  against  Uthman.  It  mattered 
little  that  there  was  no  foundation  for  the  charge,  it 
was  equally  fatal.  Again,  he  stirred  hostility  in  carry- 
ing out  at  Mecca  that  enlargement  of  the  Kaaba  square 
which  Omar  had  begun ;  and  by  making  of  his  own 
mere  will  certain  changes  in  that  ritual  of  the  Pilgrim- 
age which  was  sanctified  by  Muhammad's  example. 
To  this  was  added  the  loss,  trifling  in  itself,  of  the 
Prophet's  signet-ring,  which  fell  from  his  finger  into 
a  freshly-dug  well :  and  now  the  accumulated  forces 
of  disloyal  faction  were  ready  to  overwhelm  him. 

There  arose  a  Jewish  convert  who  preached  the 
doctrine   of   All's   divine   right,   and  of    the   "second 


1 84      MUHAMMAD  AND   HIS  POWER 

coming"  of  Muhammad  himself.  The  poisonous 
leaven  worked,  and  along  with  it  came  sedition  in 
Kufa,  to  which  the  Khalifa  yielded,  with  results  fatal 
to  himself.  The  governor  was  driven  out,  and  retired 
to  Medina ;  emissaries  of  rebellion  moved  and  plotted 
throughout  the  empire;  hesitating  measures  of  re- 
pression only  made  things  worse ;  and  Uthman  shrank 
from  the  stern  courses  which  alone  could  avail.  Ali, 
as  spokesman  of  the  people,  remonstrated,  but  gave 
neither  support  nor  practical  advice ;  and  a  despairing 
appeal  to  the  people  also  brought  neither  help  nor 
counsel.  Even  in  Medina  insult  was  poured  on  the 
Khalifa  as  he  passed  through  the  streets,  and  seditious 
cries  assailed  his  ears.  A  commission  was  sent  out  to 
inquire  into  causes  of  discontent  and  possible  remedies, 
but  was  fruitless  of  good ;  the  governors  of  provinces 
were  summoned  to  Medina  to^advise  their  sovereign, 
but  only  Muawiya  gave  counsel  of  weight, — either  to 
go  with  him  to  Egypt  or  to  receive  into  Medina  a  com- 
manding Egyptian  force.  But  both  proposals  were 
rejected,  the  faithful  viceroy  went  his  way  after 
solemn  warning  to  Ali  and  the  other  chiefs,  and  the 
final  catastrophe  hurried  on. 

Conspirators  gatliered  from  Egypt,  from  Kufa,  and 
from  Basra,  having  among  their  leaders  Muhammad, 
son  of  Abu  Bakr  and  brother  of  Ayesha.  They 
marched  on  Medina,  on  pretence  of  visiting  the 
Prophet's  Mosque  and  tomb,  and  were  at  first  baffled 
in  their  attempt  to  enter  the  city ;  but  succeeded  by 
a  stratagem.  They  rudely  called  on  Uthman  to  abdi- 
cate, "  for  the  Lord  had  cast  him  olK,"  and  on  his  re- 
fusal, rejecting  all  promises  of  reform,  they  threatened 
him  with  death.     Strife  and  tumult  reigned  in  Medina ; 


MURDER  OF  UTHMAN  185 

AH  and  the  other  chief  men  gave  no  real  help;  for 
many  weeks  the  Khalifa  was  blockaded,  till  at  length 
the  final  assault  was  made,  and  the  defences  broken 
down,  before  troops  sent  by  Muawiya  to  the  rescue 
could  reach  their  goal.  Uthman  was  murdered  as  he 
sat  in  an  inner  chamber  reading  the  Quran,  and  was 
buried  hastily  with  maimed  rites,  amid  a  shower  of 
stones  and  curses  from  his  murderers.  Thus,  after  a 
troubled  reign  of  twelve  years,  died  Uthman,  too 
weak  to  take  up  Omar's  sceptre,  too  pitiful  to  use 
that  sword  which  alone  might  have  saved  him. 

Uthman  was  dead,  the  second  prince  over  Islam  to 
fall  beneath  the  murderer's  dagger.  As  Omar  had  been 
stabbed  at  the  entering  in  of  the  Mosque,  so  had 
Uthman  been  slain  as  he  read  aloud  from  the  Sacred 
Book,  as  tradition  tells  that  the  Prophet  had  foretold 
of  him ;  and  it  is  added,  that  his  blood  flowed  down 
the  page  to  the  words  (S.  ii.  138),  "  If  they  rebel,  verily 
they  are  in  schism,  and  God  will  sufiice  thee  against 
them."  Those  who  had  fought  for  him  to  the  last  now 
scattered,  and  his  blood-stained  shirt  and  the  severed 
fingers  of  his  faithful  wife  Naila  (wounded  in  his 
defence)  were  swiftly  borne  away  to  Muawiya  in 
Syria,  to  cry  aloud  for  vengeance,  and  by  Muawiya's 
command  were  hung  up  in  the  great  Mosque  at 
Damascus. 

The  murderers  held  sway  in  Medina ;  for  a  few  days 
anarchy  reigned  ;  and  then  Ali  was,  by  their  ill-omened 
power  compelling  the  citizens,  raised  to  the  throne. 
He  may  well  have  shrunk  from  the  heavy  task  before 
him.  He  was  no  longer  the  fiery  dauntless  Ali,  who 
had  sprung  to  his  feet  to  "  bear  the  burden  "  for  the 
Prophet,  the  very  Peter  of  Islam.     At  the  death  of 


1 86      MUHAMMAD  AND   HIS  POWER 

Muhammad  lie  was  a  man  (probably)  of  about  forty, 
an  able  and  valiant  warrior,  and  of  sound,  sober  judg- 
ment. Thrice  passed  over  in  the  succession,  he  was 
now  quite  as  old  as  the  Prophet  had  been  when  he 
died,  and  had  lost  his  early  fire  and  decision,  retaining 
only  that  softness  of  character  which  was  to  prove  his 
ruin,  as  it  had  been  Uthman's.  His  one  chance  of 
mastering  the  forces  now  rising  against  him  lay  in 
quick,  stern,  unsparing  resolve.  But  his  action  during 
the  last  years  of  Uthman,  due  (we  cannot  doubt) 
largely  to  the  enervating  luxury  of  his  large  harem, 
showed  he  was  not  able  to  cope  with  his  ditHculties. 

Twelve  years  before  he  had  insisted  that  Omar's 
own  son  should  be  put  to  death  for  murder,  but  now 
he  took  no  steps  to  punish  the  murderers  of  Uthman, 
traitors  and  rebels  as  well.  Thus  he  was  untrue  to 
himself,  he  put  weapons  into  the  hands  of  his  enemies, 
and  he  alienated  the  support  of  those  who  might  have 
been  powerful  friends — Muawiya  and  Ayesha.  The 
latter  had  probably  never  liked  Ali,  she  was  suspected 
of  having  stirred  up  enmity  against  Uthman,  but  at 
tlie  last  she  had  thrown  all  her  influence  on  his  side, 
and  she  was  shocked  and  grieved  at  his  fate,  not  least 
because  her  own  brother  Muhammad  was  a  ringleader 
in  the  crime.  She  heard  the  news  on  her  way  back 
from  the  Pilgrimage  to  Mecca,  and  returned  thither 
vowing  vengeance  on  the  murderers.  Ere  long  she 
was  joined  by  Zubair  and  Talha,  mighty  men  of 
renown,  who  had  sworn  allegiance  to  Ali,  but  recanted 
on  the  plea  of  compulsion. 

Ali  meanwliilc  shrank  from  pursuing  the  murderers, 
but  rashly  persisted  against  all  faithful  counsel  in 
deposing   all    the    chief    lieutenants   of    the    empire. 


BATTLE  OF  THE  "CAMEL"  187 

Especially  did  he  commit  a  fatal  blunder  in  attempting 
to  depose  Muawiya,  before  he  was  strong  enough  to 
enforce  his  will.  That  great  viceroy  was  firmly  fixed 
in  the  affections  of  his  subjects,  in  Syria  was  settled  a 
strong,  orderly  and  well-disciplined  host  of  the  best 
Arab  stock,  and  Abu  Sufiyan's  son  was  himself  more 
than  a  match  for  Ali.  He  defied  him,  and  sent  him 
word  that  Syria  was  to  a  man  resolved  to  avenge 
Uthman's  murder  on  him. 

All's  call  to  arms  was  but  ill  answered.  His  first  task 
was  to  meet  the  rebels  who,  led  by  Talha  and  Zubair 
and  accompanied  by  Ayesha,  had  marched  upon  Basra, 
seized  the  city,  put  to  death  many  of  the  rebels  against 
Uthman,  and  were  stirring  up  revolt  in  Kufa  and 
elsewhere.  To  Kiifa  he  marched,  gathering  strength  by 
the  way,  and  being  again  strongly  aided  from  the  city, 
led  his  now  large  army  against  Basra.  Negotiations 
were  wrecked  by  Bedouin  treachery,  and  a  fierce  and 
bloody  battle  followed,  that  of  the  "  Camel,"  so  named 
from  that  which  Ayesha  rode,  and  from  which  she 
urged  on  the  fight.  Ali  was  the  victor,  his  two  chief 
opponents  fell,  and  Ayesha,  round  whose  camel  the 
fiercest  fighting  had  taken  place,  was  made  prisoner. 
Her  Ali  treated  with  most  chivalrous  courtesy,  and 
dismissed  her  safe  under  escort.  She  went  first  to 
Mecca,  and  then  finally  retired  to  Medina,  where  she 
lived  for  more  than  twent}^  years  longer,  dying  at  the 
age  of  about  sixty-six.  The  traditions  of  the  Prophet 
traced  back  to  her  are  very  numerous,  and  doubtless 
she  knew  more  of  him  and  his  thoughts  and  waj^s  than 
did  any  other. 

In  January  G57  (a.ti.  36)  Ali  entered  Kufa,  which 
was   thenceforward   his  capital.     His  next  encounter 


1 88       MUHAMMAD  AND   HIS  POWER 

must  be  with  Muclwiya,  and  both  leaders  prepared  for 
the  contest.  Partly  by  force,  partly  by  fraud,  All's 
viceroy  was  ousted  from  Egypt,  and  replaced  by  Amru, 
who  made  close  alliance  with  Muawiya.  One  more 
effort  Ali  made  to  avoid  hostilities,  sending  an  envoy 
to  invite  Muawiya  to  swear  allegiance ;  but,  in  answer, 
again  the  condition  was  made  that  the  regicides  must 
iirst  be  punished.  This  unhappily  was  beyond  All's 
power,  so  he  gathered  a  great  host  of  50,000  men,  and 
went  forth  to  attack  his  foe.  He  followed  the  course 
of  the  Euphrates  upwards,  to  a  point  nearly  due  east 
of  Antioch,  crossed  the  river  at  Riqqa,  not  without  a 
good  deal  of  opposition,  and  met  the  enemy  at  SifFln. 
Muawij^a  had  a  force  at  his  command  superior  in 
number,  equal  in  valour  and  devotion,  and  far  better 
disciplined.  Negotiation  was  tried  in  vain ;  Ali  could 
not  take  the  bold,  and  only  safe,  course  of  denouncing 
and  punishing  the  murderers  of  Uthman,  and  there 
was  no  other  common  ground  on  which  Muawiya  and 
he  could  meet.  Desultory  %hting,  with  truces  in 
between,  went  on  from  May  to  July  637  ;  in  the  hottest 
hours  of  the  battle,  Ali  showed  all  his  ancient  valour, 
and  the  victory  was  snatched  from  him  by  craft.  At 
Amru's  suggestion,  Muawiya  caused  the  Quran  to  be 
raised  aloft  as  a  standard ;  the  battle  was  stayed ;  both 
parties,  after  long  conference,  agreed  to  trust  the 
cause  to  decision  of  arbitrators, — Amru  for  Muawiya 
and  Abu  Musa  for  Ali,  that  so  (if  it  might  be)  divisions 
might  be  healed,  and  peace  restored  to  Islam.  The 
decision  was  to  be  given  after  six  montlis,  at  some 
neutral  spot  between  Kufa  and  Damascus,  and  the 
rivals  retired  each  to  his  own  capital.  The  slaughter 
on    both    sides    had    been    great,   mourning   reigned 


ALI  AND  MUAWIYA  189 

throughout  the  whole  land,  an  arbitrator  beneath  his 
task  had  been  forced  by  faction  on  Ali,  who  had  been 
driven  to  appear  as  champion  of  regicides,  and  the 
whole  balance  of  gain  lay  with  his  wily  foe. 

Fresh  trouble  sprang  up  for  Ali  as  he  marched 
homewards.  Appeal  to  the  Quran  meant  for  the 
Bedouins,  whose  real  revolt  was  against  Quraish 
ascendency,  freedom  and  equality  among  all  Muslims. 
Twelve  thousand  of  Ali's  troops  accordingly  hived  off 
from  him,  declared  for  pure  theocracy,  and  were  only 
pacified  for  a  time  by  Ali  declaring  for  the  same 
principles. 

In  February  658  (Ramadhan  37  A.D.)  the  umpires 
met  at  Duma,  half-way  between  the  rival  capitals,  each 
with  an  escort  of  400  men.  After  brief  conference 
they  agreed  to  depose  both  the  rivals,  and  then  to 
leave  a  free  choice  to  the  people.  Abu  Musa,  Ali's 
umpire,  pronounced  the  decision,  and  then  Amru  con- 
firmed Ali's  deposition,  but  confirmed  Muawiya  as 
Khalifa. 

The  decision  was  at  once  adopted  in  Syria,  and 
Muawiya  proclaimed ;  and  in  Kuf a  it  was  as  heartily 
denounced  ;  the  rival  heads  of  Islam  cursed  one  another 
in  solemn  services  as  ferventl}^  as  did  Pope  and  Anti- 
pope  in  later  days ;  and  the  flames  of  civil  war  were 
kindled  afresh. 

But  before  he  could  attack  Muawiya,  Ali  had  to  deal 
with  the  theocratic  Separatists,  who  raised,  without 
delay,  the  standard  of  rebellion,  and  drew  off  to 
Nahrwan,  to  the  north  beyond  Baghdad.  A  general 
levy  was  made  to  march  against  Syria,  but  the  rebels 
had  first  to  be  crushed.  Ali  gained  more  than  one 
bloody   victory   over   them,   and   then   led   his   army 


190      MUHAMMAD  AND   HIS  POWER 

against  Syria.  But  the  fickle,  half-hearted  troops  fell 
gradually  away,  and  the  march  was  abandoned  ;  while, 
to  add  to  Ali's  losses,  Egypt  also  was  gained  over  to 
the  enemy,  and  Muhammad,  son  of  Abu  Bakr,  was 
slain.  Broken  in  spirit,  weighed  down  by  trouble  and 
disloyalty,  Ali  had  once  and  again  to  quell  Separatist 
revolts.  Mecca  itself  was  trampled  under  foot,  first  by 
Muawiya's  forces  and  then  by  Ali's,  and  Arabia  was 
torn  with  civil  war.  The  internecine  strife  lasted  for  a 
year  or  two,  and  then,  in  660  A.D.,  Ali  and  Muawiya 
made  peace.  But  in  the  next  year  some  fanatics 
banded  themselves  together  to  assassinate  simultane- 
ously Ali,  Muawiya,  and  Amru ;  Ali  fell,  as  he  entered 
the  Mosque,  beneath  a  poisoned  blade,  and  died  in  a 
short  time,  leaving  to  his  sons,  Hasan  and  Husain,  a 
heritage  of  trouble.  So  died  the  Lion  of  Islam,  the 
Prophet's  well-loved  cousin  and  son-in-law  ;  brave, 
generous,  single-hearted,  too  simple  for  his  adversaries, 
not  stern  enough  for  his  time. 

On  the  death  of  Ali,  Hasan,  his  eldest  son,  was 
elected  at  Kufa  to  succeed  him,  for  Ali  had  refused  to 
nominate  a  successor ;  but  he  was  a  mere  voluptuary ; 
and  when  Muawiya  with  a  formidable  army  came  to 
attack  him,  he,  after  a  feeble  show  of  resistance, 
abdicated,  and  retired  to  Medina,  with  a  liberal  pen- 
sion from  the  conqueror.  There  he  indulged  those 
sensual  tastes  which  earned  him  the  name  of  "  The 
Divorcer,"  and  after  eight  years  of  this  ignoble  life 
was  poisoned  by  one  of  his  wives.  The  story  which 
lays  the  guilt  of  this  crime  on  Muawiya  may  be  dis- 
missed as  a  calunni}^  He  entered  Kufa  as  a  conqueror, 
made  himself  master  of  the  whole  Muslim  Empire,  and 
for  many  years  more  reigned  in  peace  at  Damascus. 


HUSAIN  AT  KARBALA  191 

He  created  much  scandal  by  acknowledging  as  his 
brother  Ziyad,  who  was  the  offspring  of  vagrant  love 
on  his  father's  part,  but  the  act  undoubtedly  strength- 
ened his  throne.  To  provide  against  a  recurrence  of 
civil  war  at  his  death,  he  chose  his  son  Yazid  to  suc- 
ceed him,  and  required,  during  his  lifetime,  an  oath  of 
allegiance  to  his  nominee.  In  the  conquered  provinces 
this  was  obtained  witliout  difficulty,  but  force  was 
required  to  impose  the  condition  on  the  Holy  Cities, 
and  at  Mecca  tlie  end  was  only  reached  by  threats  of 
the  sword.  At  length,  in  April  680,  Muawiya  died, 
being  nearly  eighty  years  old,  and  Yazid  reigned  in 
his  stead. 

As  Muawiya  had  warned  him,  Yazid  soon  found  a 
pretender  spring  up  in  Husain,  second  son  of  Fatima  and 
Ali.  He  escaped  from  Medina  to  Mecca,  to  avoid  the 
oath  of  allegiance,  and  was  then  tempted  by  urgent  pro- 
mises and  invitations  to  start  for  Kuf a,  in  the  dangerous 
part  of  pretender.  His  best  friends  warned  him  against 
trusting  the  Kuf  ans,  but  in  vain ;  so  he  set  out  with  all 
his  family  and  friends,  and  a  small  bodyguard  of  thirty 
devoted  adherents. 

But  Yazid  was  on  the  alert,  and  sent  an  able,  unscrup- 
ulous governor,  Ubaid  Allah,  son  of  Ziyad,  to  master  the 
rebellious  city.  Husain's  messengers,  sent  to  feel  the 
public  pulse,  were  seized  and  put  to  death ;  the  Kufans 
dared  not  rise  ;  and  the  governor  sent  a  strong  troop  of 
horse  to  bar  Husain's  passage,  to  demand  his  uncon- 
ditional surrender,  and  to  prevent  his  return  to  the 
Hijclz.  The  Arab  tribes  that  had  been  flocking  to  his 
side,  seeing  now  small  chance  of  success,  melted  away 
from  him  ;  he  pleaded  in  vain  to  be  allowed  to  surrender, 
on  promise  of  being  sent  before  Yazid  at  Damascus ; 


192       MUHAMMAD  AND   HIS  POWER 

and  cat  length,  hemmed  in  by  his  foes  and  cut  off  from 
tlic  river,  his  only  water-supply,  Husain  and  his  small 
faithful  band  were  attacked  and  annihilated  on  the  fatal 
field  of  Karbala.  One  after  another,  selling  their  lives 
dearly  and  slaying  more  than  their  own  number  of  the 
enemy,  sons,  nephews,  brothers,  cousins  of  Husain  fell 
beneath  the  swords  and  the  arrows  of  the  Kiifan 
soldiery;  the  little  camp  was  ravaged  with  fire  also, 
from  the  burning  reeds  of  the  river-bank ; — last  of  all 
fell  Husain  himself,  and  the  cavalry  rode  over  the 
corpses.  All  the  fighting  men  were  slain,  and  their 
heads,  seventy  in  number,  carried, — a  ghastly  load, — 
along  with  the  captive  women  and  children,  to  the  feet 
of  Ubaid  Allah,  Yazid's  savage  representative.  Mua- 
wiya's  last  charge  to  his  son  had  been  to  "  deal  gently 
with  Husain,  for  verily  the  Prophet's  blood  courses 
through  his  veins."  But  the  governor  roughly  turned 
the  bloody  head  over  with  his  staff,  to  the  horror  of  his 
own  courtiers,  and  an  aged  man  rebuked  him  with  the 
words,  "  Gently,  for  it  is  the  Prophet's  grandson.  By 
the  Lord  !  I  have  seen  these  very  lips  kissed  by  the 
blessed  mouth  of  Muhammad  ! " 

A  sister,  two  little  sons,  and  two  daughters,  alone 
were  left  now  of  the  Prophet's  descendants.  These  were 
sent  first  to  Damascus,  and  thence  after  a  time,  with  all 
honour  and  respect,  to  the  deserted  homes  in  Medina. 
The  tragedy  of  Karbala  took  place  on  the  10th  of 
Muharram  61  A.H.,  and  that  day  has  since,  through 
many  centuries,  been  observed  with  the  deepest  grief 
and  wildest  and  most  enthusiastic  devotion  by  the 
followers  of  the  great  Bhia  schism,  the  universal 
creed  of  Persia  and  the  lands  which  Persia  influenced. 
Seventy  years  later  the  memory  of  Karbala  hurled  the 


RIVAL  DYNASTIES  193 

Umayyads  from  the  throne  ;  to  this  day  it  is  for  millions 
of  Muslims  a  shrine  as  holy  as  Mecca  or  Medina,  and 
the  death-caravan  pursues  evermore  its  mournful  way 
through  the  deserts  of  Persia,  to  lay  the  faithful  dead 
to  rest  in  the  soil  hallowed  by  Husain's  bones.  From 
the  feeble  remnant  of  Ali's  family  have  sprung,  in 
later  centuries,  countless  thousands  of  Sayyids,  the 
aristocracy  of  birth  in  Islam. 

Thus  was  for  ever  extinguished  the  secular  power  in 
the  Prophet's  own  family;  for  the  Abbasids  represented 
his  uncle.  Karbala  was  fought  sixty,  and  Ali  was 
murdered  forty,  years  after  the  Flight.  Taking  the 
commonly  received  dates  of  the  first  Christian  century, 
the  murder  of  Ali  would  correspond  in  time  (dating  from 
our  Lord's  baptism)  with  the  martyrdom  of  Peter  and 
Paul,  and  the  massacre  at  Karbala  with  that  of  St.  John. 
Li  the  one  case  the  "  blood  of  the  martyrs  was  the  seed 
of  the  Church,"  faithful  to  her  Lord's  word,  that  "  His 
kingdom  was  not  of  this  world  "  ;  the  Prophet  of  Arabia, 
on  the  contrary,  claimed  this  world  as  his  kingdom,  and 
his  servants  fought  for  him,  and  have  long  prevailed  ; 
the  choice  of  "  Islam,  tribute,  or  the  sword,"  solemnly 
pronounced  by  himself,  and  offered  in  his  own  day  by 
his  lieutenants,  has  been  the  rule  of  his  Empire  ever 
since.  The  martyrs  of  Islam  are  her  warriors  slain  on 
the  battlefield,  fighting  the  enemies  of  their  Prophet, 
generally  in  aggressive  warfare,  not  those  who  are 
haled  before  kings  and  rulers  for  the  Master's  sake,  and 
who  shed  their  blood  for  faith  in  His  name. 


13 


CHAPTER   XIV 

The  Quran — Its  Comijosition,  Literary  Character,  and  Influence — 
Fixes  the  Arabic  Tongue — Not  collected  by  Muhammad — The 
Fatiha — The  Doctrine  of  Allah,  with  Extracts — Man's  relation 
to  God  :  his  Moral  and  Religious  Duties,  Future  Life,  and 
Rewards  and  Punishments — The  Higher  Law  of  Christ — 
Creation  and  Providence— The  Resurrection — Paradise  and 
Hell — Illustrative  Extracts — Muhammad's  Debt  to  Judaism — 
His  Inferiority — Women  in  Islam — Slavery. 

The  paradox  has  been  maintained  ^  that  Christianity 
would  be  a  force  quite  as  great  in  the  world  without  the 
Old  and  New  Testaments  as  with  them.  Not  many  will 
be  found  to  admit  this ;  but,  however  it  might  be  with 
Christianity,  it  is  quite  certain  that  the  existence  of 
Islam  is  bound  up  with  the  Quran,  Were  it  for  nothing 
else,  the  whole  fabric  of  religious  observances  rests 
upon  it.  The  daily  prayers,  the  Friday  general  service, 
all  solemn  affairs  to  which  the  sanction  of  religion  is 
attached,  the  wedding  and  the  burying  of  the  "  faithful," 
and  the  memorial  services  for  the  good  of  their  souls, — 
all  are  founded  on  the  Quran,  and  have  no  existence 
save  through  it.  Apart  from  this,  however,  looked 
upon  merely  as  literature,  the  service  to  his  people  and 
tongue  which  Muhammad  did  by  composing  the  Quran 

^  Among    others,    a   distinguished    Edinburgh    Advocate   and   well- 
known  adherent  of  the  United  Free  Chm'ch  of  Scotland,  has  urged  this 

view. 

194 


THE  QURAN  195 

is  altogether  beyond  estimate.  Before  him  there  existed 
nothing  in  Arabic  but  poetry,  fragmentary  songs  and 
ballads,  which  indeed  show  the  language  highly  de- 
veloped, with  all  the  qualities  needed  for  making  a  great 
literature.  But  prose  was  not  yet  in  existence,  little 
was  recorded  in  writing,  and  divergent  dialects  threat- 
ened to  prevent  the  formation  of  a  national  tongue. 
Muhammad  gave  Arabia  the  first  prose  she  possessed, 
the  sacred  character  of  the  Quran  fixed  for  ever  the  type 
of  language  that  should  prevail, — the  cultivated  dialect 
of  the  Quraish,  and  the  balanced  rhythm  of  the  Pro- 
phetic oracles,  modified  from  ancient  Arab  poetic  form, 
and  comparable  with  the  parallelism  of  Hebrew  poetry, 
permeates  all  later  Arabic  literature.  Without  an  ex- 
tensive and  accurate  knowledge  of  the  Quran,  countless 
allusions  and  phrases  are  unintelligible ;  every  good 
Muslim  has  by  heart  many  cliapters  from  its  sacred 
pages,  and  repeats  not  a  few  in  his  daily  prayers ;  and 
the  title  Hdjiz,  highly  prized,  and  known  to  the  West 
chiefly  as  the  poetic  name  of  the  sweetest  mystical 
bard  of  Persia,  signifies  one  who  can  repeat  the 
whole  Book  from  end  to  end.  Luther  created  modern 
High  German  by  his  translation  of  the  Bible;  our 
own  Authorised  Version  has  given  permanency  and 
high  excellence  to  the  English  language,  forming  a 
bond  imperishable  for  the  Anglo-Saxon  race;  but 
in  both  Germany  and  England  there  existed  already 
a  great  and  vigorous  literature,  so  that  the  service 
which  Muhammad  rendered  to  his  people  was  even 
greater. 

The  peculiar  feature  of  the  Semitic  group  of  lan- 
guages, the  tri-consonantal  radicals,  whose  primary  de- 
velopment by  vowels  gives  the  verb,  with  its  almost 


196       MUHAMMAD  AND   HIS   POWER 

endless  variety  of  inflection,  and  the  substantive  forms 
springing  from  them,  induces  a  similarity  of  word- 
endings  which  makes  it  (in  Burton's  phrase)  "almost  as 
difficult  not  to  rhyme  in  Arabic  as  in  Italian."  From 
this  comes  the  peculiar  system  of  Arab  rhyme,  a  whole 
long  poem  having  every  line  ending  in  the  same  sound, 
and  even  with  a  double  assonance.  One  and  the  same 
succession  of  vocalised  syllables,  filling  up  the  tri-con- 
sonantal  skeleton,  or  amplifying  it  by  (so-called)  servile, 
or  formative,  additions,  gives  the  same  or  similar  modifi- 
cation of  the  primary  sense  of  the  radical ;  and  thus 
form  and  sense  and  sound  suggest  and  harmonise  with 
one  another.  Naturally  these  things  were  a  help  to  the 
memory,  just  as  the  metrical  form  of  the  oldest  Arj^an 
literature,  Vedic  and  Orphic  Hymns,  or  the  Laws  of  the 
Twelve  Tables,  made  it  more  easy  to  keep  them  in  mem- 
ory. Muhammad  heartily  abhorred  poets  and  poetry, 
and  vehemently  denied  the  imputation  that  he  himself 
was  a  poet ;  yet  his  earliest  revelations  have  much  of  the 
spirit,  and  not  a  little  of  the  form,  of  poetry.  It  is  this 
which  gave  power  to  his  message,  though  his  bold 
challenge  to  "  produce  a  chapter  like  unto  them,  if  they 
be  not  verily  the  Word  of  God,"  depended  (as  Noldeke 
remarks)  as  much  on  the  substance  as  on  the  language 
and  form.  Anyone  who  had  repeated  Muhammad's 
message  would  have  stood  convicted  of  imitation,  and 
a  copy  is  ever  far  below  the  original.  The  first 
Meccan  Suras  come  hot  from  the  heart,  it  is  they  which 
(he  said)  had  turned  his  hair  grey ;  and  later  the  elo- 
quence might,  and  did,  lose  its  brilliancy  and  power 
without  affecting  its  sway  over  souls  already  won.  The 
various  parts  Avere  dictated,  no  doubt  on  constant  re- 
petition in  forms  not  identical,  and  treasured  up  by 


THE  FATIHA  197 

those  who  recorded  them.  The  Prophet  also,  we 
are  told,  would  give  directions  for  connecting  new 
with  old,  and  attaching  fresh  revelations  to  the  older 
that  seemed  cognate  to  or  connected  with  them. 
It  is  strange,  however,  that  he  gave  no  more  regular 
form  to  the  whole  body  of  his  oracles,  and  left  this 
to  be  done  by  his  successors.  Tradition  is  of  no 
great  value  in  determining  their  order,  the  most 
penetrating  "  higher  criticism  "  is  only  partially  success- 
ful, and  we  regretfully  admit  that  scarcely  anything 
quite  certain  has  been  done  to  solve  the  riddle  of  the 
Quran. 

Let  us  now  take  a  few  extracts  from  the  Sacred 
Volume,  beginning  with  the  Felt  ilea,  "Opening" 
Chapter,  which  stands  out  of  its  order  at  the  beginning 
of  the  Quran.  To  the  Muslim  it  is  much  what  the 
Paternoster  is  to  a  Roman  Catholic;  it  is  used  in 
praj'^er  several  times  a  day,  is  held  to  have  very  special 
virtues,  and  the  Prophet  himself  is  said  to  have 
declared  it  to  be  "equal  to  one-third  of  the  Quran." 
Every  child  learns  it  next  after  the  Creed,  and  to  all 
for  whom  Arabic  is  a  foreio-n  tong-ue,  as  Latin  is  to  the 
members  of  the  Church  of  Rome,  the  m^^sterious 
efScacy  is  heightened  by  its  unfamiliar  dress,  —  for 
many  decisions  of  the  Doctors  of  Islam  have  pronounced 
it  heresy  to  use  in  pra^^er  translations  of  the  Quran,  the 
original  Arabic  in  which  it  was  revealed  being  alone 
pleasing  to  the  ears  of  Allah.  The  prayer  is  used  not 
only  in  religious  ceremonies,  but  also  to  lend  binding 
force  to  solemn  agreements,  at  marriages,  at  funerals, 
and  the  like.  Thus  runs,  in  Burton's  version  which 
imitates  tlie  cadences  of  the  original,  the  famous 
prayer,  which  may  with  advantage  and  instruction  be 


198       MUHAMMAD  AND   HIS   POWER 

compared  with  the  first  Psalm  of  David  and  with  our 
own  Lord's  Praj^er  : — 

"  In  the  name  of  God,  Merciful  and  Gracious  ! 
Praise  be  to  Allah,  wlio  the  (three)  worlds  made, 
The  Merciful,  the  Compassionate. 
The  King  of  the  Day  of  Faith.i 

Thee  (alone)  do  we  worship,  and  of  Thee  (alone)  do  we  ask  aid . 
Guide  us  to  the  Path  that  is  straight — 
The  Path  of  those  for  whom  Thy  Love  is  great,  not  those  on 

whom  is  Hate,  nor  they  that  deviate. 
Amen  !  0  Lord  of  Angels,  Jinns,  and  men  ! "  ^ 

This  Chapter  belongs  to  the  early  Meccan  period. 

The  Doctrine  of  Allah — 
The  Chapter  of  Unity  (112). 

"  Say,  He  is  God  alone  ! 
God  the  Eternal ! 

He  begets  not,  and  is  not  begotten ! 
Nor  is  there  like  unto  Him  any  one  ! " 

Palmer. 

This   the   Prophet  is  traditionally  said  to  have  pro- 
nounced equal  to  one-third  of  the  whole  Quran. 

"  God,  there  is  no  God  but  He,  the  living,  the  self- 
subsisting.  Slumber  takes  Him  not,  nor  sleep.  His  is 
what  is  in  the  heavens  and  what  is  in  the  earth. 
Who  is  it  that  intercedes  with  Him,  save  by  His  per- 
mission ?  He  knows  what  is  before  them  and  what 
behind  them,  and  they  comprehend  not  aught  of  His 
knowledge,  but  what  He  pleases.  His  throne  extends 
over  the  heavens  and  the  earth,  and  it  burdens  Him 
not  to  guard  them  them  both,  for  He  is  high  and  great " 
(Palmer,  ii.  256). 

^  Or  Fate,  Last  Jad^t,nuent  (Ar.  din). 

-  This  line  is  not  part  of  the  Ffdiha  proper  as  it  appears  in  the  Qurfm. 


THE  DOCTRINE  OF  GOD  199 

This  is  the  Throne  Verse,  esteemed  one  of  the 
grandest  in  the  Book.  Many  repeat  it  after  each  of 
the  five  daily  prayers,  and  it  is  often  inscribed  in 
mosques,  etc.  To  the  Jew  and  the  Christian  every 
phrase  is  familiar. 

"  Your  God  is  one  God ;  there  is  no  God  but  He,  the 
Merciful,  the  Compassionate.  Verily,  in  the  creation 
of  the  heavens  and  the  earth,  and  the  alternation  of 
night  and  day,  and  in  the  ship  that  runneth  in  the  sea 
with  that  which  profits  man,  and  in  what  water  God 
sends  down  from  heaven  and  quickens  therewith  the 
earth  after  its  death,  and  spreads  abroad  therein  all 
kinds  of  cattle,  and  in  the  shifting  of  the  winds,  and  in 
the  clouds  that  are  pressed  into  service  betwixt  heaven 
and  earth, — are  signs  to  people  who  can  understand  " 
(Palmer,  ii.  158-159). 

"  Say,  0  God,  Lord  of  the  kingdom  !  Thou  givest  the 
kingdom  to  whomsoever  Thou  pleasest,  and  strippest 
the  kingdom  from  whomsoever  thou  pleasest ;  Thou 
honourest  whom  Thou  pleasest,  and  abasest  whom 
Thou  pleasest ;  in  Thy  hand  is  good.  Verily,  Thou  art 
mighty  over  all.  Thou  dost  turn  night  to  day,  and 
dost  turn  day  to  night,  and  dost  bring  forth  the  living 
from  the  dead,  and  dost  provide  for  whom  Thou 
pleasest  without  taking  count." 

"  Say,  If  ye  hide  that  which  is  in  your  breasts,  or  if 
ye  show  it,  God  knows  it :  He  knows  what  is  in  the 
heavens  and  what  is  in  the  earth,  for  God  is  mighty 
over  all." 

"Say,  If  ye  would  love  God,  then  follow  me 
(Muhammad),  and  God  will  love  you  and  forgive 
you  your  sins,  for  God  is  forgiving  and  merciful." 

"Say,  Obey  God  and   the  apostle;  but  if  ye  turn 


200       MUHAMMAD  AND   HIS   POWER 

your  backs,  God  loves  not  misbelievers.  When  He 
decrees  a  matter,  He  only  saj^s  BE,  and  it  is." 

"  God's  is  what  is  in  the  heavens,  and  what  is  in  the 
earth,  and  unto  God  affairs  return." 

"  What  ye  do  of  good  surely  God  will  not  deny,  for 
God  knows  those  who  fear." 

"  God  is  your  Lord,  He  is  the  best  of  helpers  :  He  is 
forgiving  and  clement.  He  loveth  them  that  trust  in 
Him.  If  God  help  you,  there  is  none  can  overcome 
you ;  but  if  He  cast  you  off,  who  is  he  that  can  deliver 
you  ?     God  is  enough  for  us,  a  Good  Guardian  is  He." 

"  God  will  not  require  of  the  soul  save  what  it  is  able 
for.  It  shall  have  what  it  has  earned,  and  it  shall  owe 
what  has  been  earned  from  it.  Lord,  catch  us  not  up, 
if  we  forget  or  go  astray;  Lord,  lay  not  on  us  a 
burden,  as  Thou  didst  upon  them  that  were  before  us. 
Lord,  make  us  not  to  bear  that  for  which  we  have  not 
strength,  but  forgive  us,  and  pardon  us,  and  have 
mercy  on  us.  Thou  art  our  King,  help  Thou  us  against 
the  unbeliever ! " 

The  foregoing  few  extracts  must  suffice  for  textual 
authorities.  Allah  is  Almighty,  All-merciful :  yet  He 
is  the  Author  of  evil,  no  less  than  of  good.  Whom  He 
will  He  guides  aright,  and  whom  He  will  He  leads 
astray.  His  eternal,  unchangeable,  irrevocable  decrees 
have  been  from  all  eternity  inscribed  on  the  Preserved 
Tablet.  Yet  in  the  beginning  Islam  was  specially  a 
missionary  religion,  to  be  extended  over  the  whole 
world,  thus  sharply  distinguishing  it  from  Judaism, 
which  rather  repelled  than  invited  converts.  As  we 
saw,  however,  in  the  Vision,  Muhammad  beheld  Adam 
weeping  over  the  myriads  of  his  descendants  who  were 
foredoomed  to  hell ;    another  tradition  tells  how  the 


PREDESTINATION  201 

Prophet  represented  the  Creator  as  fashioning  His 
creatures  and  saying,  as  He  made  them,  "Those  for 
Paradise  and  I  care  not,  and  those  for  Hell  and  I  care 
not ! "  Lane  tells  how  at  the  present  day  in  Egypt 
devout  Muslims  make  no  effort  at  the  conversion  of 
unbelievers,  and  justify  their  position  by  saying, 
"  The  number  of  the  elect  is  fixed  from  everlasting,  and 
no  human  acting  can  add  to  that  number,  or  diminish 
aught  therefrom :  why  should  we  tire  ourselves  with 
vain  endeavour  ? "  Muhammad  himself  was  posed 
with  the  contradiction  between  Predestination  and 
Freewill  by  his  simple  Arab  followers  in  Medina,  just 
as  in  our  own  day  Bishop  Colenso  was  put  to  the 
worse  by  his  "simple  Zulu."     But  when  they 

*'  Keasoned  liigh 
Of  Providence,  fore-knowledge,  will,  and  fate, — 
Fired  fate,  free-will,  fore-knowledge  absolute — 
And  found  no  end,  in  wandering  mazes  lost, — " 

he  cut  the  discussion  short,  and  declared  that  such 
disputing  would  bring  them  to  hell ;  for  "  on  the  Judg- 
ment-day the  Lord  will  require  such  as  so  dispute  to 
set  the  matter  clearly  forth,  and  when  they  fail  He  will 
condemn  them  to  hell-fire." 

Of  man,  in  his  relation  to  God,  Muhammad  teaches 
that  he  is  the  creature  of  God's  hand,  absolutely 
dependent  on  Him  for  everything.  From  God  man 
receives  all  the  blessings  with  which  he  is  surrounded 
in  this  life,  and  the  promise  of  happiness  hereafter,  if 
he  serve  God  and  obeys  Him  and  His  Prophet  in  this 
life.  He  must  pray  and  fast,  give  alms  and  pay  tithes, 
go  on  pilgrimage  to  Mecca,  and  fight  for  the  faith.  If 
he  die  a  Muslim  in  battle,  his  entry  into  Paradise  is  not 


202       MUHAMMAD   AND   HIS  POWER 

only  certain,  but  immediate  :  he  enters  at  once  into  the 
enjoyment  of  shady  trees,  cool  rivers  of  water,  wine 
that  rejoiceth  the  heart  and  doth  not  cloud  the  brain 
and  the  company  of  black-eyed  virgins  of  Paradise 
(Huris).  This  was  the  promise  often  made,  though  at 
other  times  the  teaching  is — and  such  is  now  the 
orthodox  doctrine — that  the  dead  remain  in  an  inter- 
mediate state  till  the  general  Resurrection :  but  believers 
have  all  thinofs  well  with  them,  and  the  wicked  are 
tormented  with  the  "  punishments  of  the  grave,"  from 
which  every  good  Muslim  prays  the  Lord  to  deliver 
him.  No  Muslim  will  be  condemned  to  hell-fire  for  ever, 
though  sin  will  be  punished  for  longer  or  shorter  time 
after  death,  and  in  the  end  pardoned  at  Muhammad's 
intercession. 

The  cardinal  sins  forbidden  are:  —  Idolatry,  or 
associating  aught  with  God  as  His  equal ;  adultery ; 
false  witness  against  a  brother  Muslim.  Gaming,  the 
drinking  of  wine  or  any  intoxicant,  taking  of  usury, 
and  divination  by  arrows,  are  strictly  forbidden :  and 
the  punishment  is  scourging  and  infamy.  When  we 
see  amonof  Christian  nations  all  over  the  world  the  un- 
told  misery  and  destruction  wrought  by  drinking  and 
o-amblino-,  we  could  wish  that  similar  restraints  were 
recognised  among  ourselves.  Yet  ours  is  the  higher 
law.  The  Muslim  is  forbidden  to  do  certain  things, 
and  commanded  to  do  certain  others :  commands  and 
prohibitions  are  alike  definite  and  precise.  The 
Christian  is  bidden,  "  whether  ye  eat  or  drink,  or  what- 
soever ye  do,  do  all  to  the  glory  of  God  " ;  "  let  your 
moderation  be  known  unto  all  men,  the  Lord  is  at 
hand  "  ;  "  love  thy  neighbour  as  thyself  "  ;  "  love  worketh 
no  ill  to  his  neidibour,  therefore  love  is  the  fulfilling 


CREATION  AND  PROVIDENCE        203 

of  the  law  "  ;  "  be  ye  perfect,  as  your  Father  wliich  is 
in  heaven  is  perfect."  Such  is  the  leaven  of  Chris- 
tianity, which  shall  yet  leaven  the  whole  lump  of 
human  kind :  with  us  is  the  Spirit  which  giveth  life, 
not  the  letter  which  killeth.  The  brotherhood  of 
Islam  is  limited  to  believers :  Muslims  are  strictly  for- 
bidden to  greet  with  "  Peace  "  (saldm)  the  followers  of 
any  other  creed,  and  the  one  crime  which  must  be 
punished  by  death  is  apostasy  from  Islam,  as  the  one 
offence  which  God  will  not  forgive  is  the  rejection  of 
the  Prophet's  message.  So  strongly  is  the  punishment 
of  death  for  apostasy  held  to  be  the  organic  law  of 
Islam,  that  the  utmost  efforts  of  the  Christian  powers 
in  1855  (when  Turkey  owed  everything  to  their 
support)  failed  to  get  it  abolished.  It  must  be 
remembered,  in  this  connection,  that  Christians  are,  in 
the  sight  of  Muslims,  polytheists  and  idolaters,  for  their 
worship  of  the  Son  and  the  Holy  Spirit  as  Persons  of 
the  Godhead :  the  commands  of  Muhammad  are  strict, 
emphatic,  and  often  repeated,  to  fight  to  death  or  sub- 
jection against  all  such,  and  his  own  mistake  may  be 
explained  by  the  fact  that — first,  the  form  of  Chris- 
tianity which  he  himself  knew  directly  exalted  the 
Virgin  Mother  to  a  level  with  the  Father  and  the  Son ; 
and  second,  that  any  further  knowledge  he  possessed 
was  derived  from  Jewish  sources.  We  find  also  in  the 
Quran  the  remarkable  statement,  "  the  Jews  say  that 
Ezra  is  the  Son  of  God." 

Muhammad  adopts  the  Bible's  story  of  the  creation  of 
the  world  and  man,  his  being  placed  in  the  garden  of 
Eden,  and  banished  therefrom  for  having — at  the 
temptation  of  Satan — eaten  of  forbidden  fruit,  which 
the   Arab   version   makes   to  have  been  wheat.     The 


204       MUHAMMAD  AND   HIS   POWER 

tempter  is  Iblis,  who  had  ranked  high  in  heaven,  but 
who  refused  to  obey  God's  command  to  worship  Adam, 
as  God's  representative.  Being  condemned  for  his 
rebelHon  to  hell-fire,  he  asked  and  obtained  respite  till 
the  Judgment-day,  and  then  swore  to  tempt  and  mis- 
lead mankind  throughout  the  ages.  Besides  mankind 
God  created  the  nations  of  the  Jinns,  some  wicked  and 
some  good,  spiritual  counterparts  of  men.  Muhammad's 
mission  was  to  them  also,  and  many  believed  :  it  is  an 
article  of  faith  to  believe  in  their  existence.  As  the 
ages  ran,  the  revelation  of  God's  will  to  men  was  made 
by  a  succession  of  Prophets  specially  commissioned 
with  a  message,  gradually  increasing  in  definiteness, 
until  the  coming  of  Muhammad.  The  earlier  Prophets, 
of  whom  the  first  was  Adam  himself,  and  the  last  Jesus 
Christ,  had  a  message  each  to  his  own  nation  only ; 
but  the  "  seal  of  the  Prophets "  was  to  be  a  blessing 
and  mercy  to  all  mankind.  The  greatest  of  the  former 
Prophets  were  Moses  and  Jesus  Christ,  but  the  "  Father 
of  the  faithful "  is  (as  we  have  seen),  for  Muhammad  as 
for  St.  Paul,  Abraham,  whose  Faith  he  was  sent  to 
revive.  The  other  chief  prophets  are  mainly  Old 
Testament  worthies,  David,  Joseph,  Jonah,  Elijah,  and 
others ;  and  those  commemorated  in  Arab  legend.  Hud, 
Salih,  Shuaib,  whose  miraculous  stories  are  told  at 
much  length  in  the  Quran.  The  burden  of  every 
Prophet's  warning  is,  to  serve  the  one  true  God,  and 
Him  only,  to  know  the  certainty  of  the  resurrection,  and 
to  look  forward  to  a  future  life  of  happiness  or  misery, 
according  to  each  man's  works.  The  simple,  beautiful 
histories  of  the  Bible  are  amplified  and  distorted  by  a 
luscious  and  not  very  clean  fancy,  the  most  notable 
case  being  that  of  Joseph  in  Egypt,  and  it  is  easy  to 


THE  FINAL  JUDGMENT  205 

credit  the  tradition  which  tells  how  Muhammad  wept 
when  he  found  Omar  reading  the  Jewish  sacred 
stories ;  and  this  again  lends  colour  to  the  story  of  the 
destruction  of  the  Alexandrian  libraries  by  that 
Khalifa's  command,  a  story  which  Gibbon  and  others 
reject,  but  which  De  Sacy  and  Richard  Burton 
believed.  In  the  Quran  again,  the  births  of  John  the 
Baptist  and  of  Jesus  Christ  are  told  with  many  added 
details,  and  much  less  beauty  than  in  the  Gospels ; 
our  Lord  is  made  Himself  to  deny  His  divinity,  and 
the  Crucifixion  is  branded  as  a  profane  fable.  In  the 
Traditions  it  is  foretold  that  when  the  end  of  this 
world  draws  nigh,  there  shall  arise  first  Dajjal  (the 
Muhammadan  analogue  of  Antichrist),  who  shall 
gather  to  battle  the  hosts  of  evil ;  then  Messiah  shall 
return  from  heaven,  to  which  He  was  caught  up  from 
the  rage  of  the  Jews,  and  restore  the  kingdom  of 
Islam;  then  shall  Israfil  blow  the  first  blast  of  his 
trumpet,  and  all  things  that  have  life  shall  die.  Death 
shall  hold  universal  sway  for  forty  days,  then  shall 
the  second  blast  be  sounded,  and  the  dead,  small  and 
great, — animals  as  well  as  men, — shall  be  raised  from 
their  graves,  clothed  again  with  their  bodies,  and  mar- 
shalled for  judgment. 

The  great  Day,  ushered  in  by  the  most  appalling 
sights  and  sounds,  is  to  last  for  fifty  thousand  years ! 
To  every  man  will  be  given  a  book  containing  the 
record  of  his  deeds ;  the  righteous  shall  receive  theirs 
in  their  right  hands,  and  their  faces  will  beam  with 
joy  ;  but  tlie  sinners  will  receive  theirs  in  the  left 
hand,  chained  behind  their  backs.  Every  soul  will 
perforce  confess  the  righteousness  of  the  Judge.  The 
blessed  will  be  welcomed  by  the  angels  into  Paradise, 


2o6      MUHAMMAD  AND   HIS  POWER 

there  to  receive  "  the  promise  of  their  Lord,"  and  for 
ever  to  enjoy  rest  and  the  reward  of  their  faith  and 
works, — a  happiness  selfisli  and  self-centred  (to  say 
the  least),  not  that  endless  life  of  higher  service  to 
which  the  Christian  is  taught  to  look  forward,  in  the 
immediate  presence  of  the  Father.  The  wicked  shall 
be  turned  into  Hell,  there  to  abide  for  ever  in  torment 
ever-renewed,  in  the  "fire  whose  fuel  is  men  and 
stones," — filled  full  with  unbelieving  Jinns  and  men; 
and  they  also  shall  confess  too  late  that  "  the  promise 
of  their  Lord  was  true." 

Some  extracts  from  the  Quran  follow,  giving 
(generally  in  Palmer's  version)  the  very  words  of 
Muhammad  on  the  subject  of  man's  position  in  this 
world,  his  duty  to  God  and  to  his  fellows,  the  final 
judgment  and  his  future  destiny. 

"  In  the  name  of  God,  Merciful  and  Compassionate  ! 
When  the  sun  is  folded  up, 
And  when  the  stars  do  fall, 
And  when  tlie  mountains  are  moved, 
And  when  the  she-camels  ten  months  gone  with  young  whall 

be  neglected, 
And  when  the  beasts  shall  be  crowded  together, 
And  when  the  seas  shall  surge  up, 
And  when  souls  shall  be  paired  with  bodies, 
And  when  the  child  who  was  buried  alive  shall  ask  for  what 

sin  she  was  slain, 
And  when  the  pages  shall  be  spread  out, 
And  when  the  heaven  shall  be  flayed, 
And  when  hell  shall  be  set  ablaze, 
And  when  paradise  shall  be  brought  nigh. 
The  soul  shall  know  what  it  hath  produced  !  "  (Ixxxi.  1-14). 

"  In  the  name  of  God,  Merciful  and  Compassionate  ! 
When  the  heaven  is  cleft  asunder, 
And  when  the  stars  are  scattered, 


MAN'S  DUTY  207 

And  when  the  seas  gash  together, 

And  when  the  tombs  are  turned  upside  down, 

The  soul  shall  know  what  it  hath  sent  on  or  kept  back  1 " 

"  0  man !  what  hath  seduced  thee  concerning  thy 
generous  Lord,  who  created  thee,  and  fashioned  thee, 
and  gave  thee  symmetry,  and  in  what  form  He  pleased 
composed  thee  ? 

"  Nay,  but  ye  call  the  judgment  a  lie  !  but  over  you 
are  guardians  set, — noble,  writing  down !  they  know 
what  ye  do ! 

"  Verily,  the  righteous  are  in  pleasure,  and  verily  the 
wicked  are  in  hell :  they  shall  broil  therein  upon  the 
Judgment-day,  nor  shall  they  be  absent  therefrom ! 

"  And  what  shall  make  thee  know  what  is  the  Judg- 
ment-day ?  Again,  what  shall  make  thee  know  what 
is  the  Judgment-day  ?  a  day  wdien  no  soul  shall  control 
aught  for  another;  and  the  bidding  on  that  day  be- 
longs to  God  ! "  (Ixxxii.). 

"  God  it  is  who  produced  for  you  hearing,  and  sight, 
and  intellect, — little  do  ye  give  thanks  !  And  He  it  is 
that  created  you  in  the  earth,  and  unto  Him  shall  ye  be 
gathered.  And  He  it  is  who  gives  you  life  and  death ; 
and  His  is  the  alternation  of  life  and  death ;  have  ye 
then  no  sense  ? 

"  O  ye  who  believe !  bow  down  and  adore,  and  serve 
your  Lord,  and  do  well,  haply  ye  may  prosper;  and 
fight  strenuously  for  God,  as  is  His  due.  He  has 
elected  you,  and  has  not  put  upon  you  any  hindrance 
by  your  religion, — the  faith  of  your  father  Abraham. 

"  Be  ye  then  steadfast  in  prayer,  and  give  alms,  and 
hold  fast  by  God :  He  is  your  sovereign,  and  an 
excellent  sovereign,  and  an  excellent  help. 

"  The  servants  of  the  Merciful  are  those  who  walk 


2o8       MUHAMMAD  AND   HIS  POWER 

upon  the  earth  lowly,  and  when  the  ignorant  address 
them  say,  '  Peace ! '  and  those  who  pass  the  night 
adoring  their  Lord  and  standing ;  and  those  who  say, 
'  0  our  Lord,  turn  from  us  the  torment  of  hell ! ' 

"  And  those  who  when  they  spend  are  neither  wasteful 
nor  miserly ;  and  who  call  not  upon  another  god  with 
God,  and  kill  not  the  soul  which  God  has  prohibited 
save  deservedly ;  and  do  not  commit  fornication ;  for 
he  who  does  that  shall  meet  with  a  penalty ;  doubled 
shall  be  the  torment  on  the  Resurrection-day,  and  he 
shall  therein  be  aye  despised. 

"  Save  he  who  turns  again  and  believes,  and  does  a 
righteous  work ;  for,  as  to  those,  God  will  change  their 
evil  deeds  to  good,  for  God  is  ever  forgiving,  merciful  ! 

"And  those  who  do  not  testify  falsely;  and  when 
they  pass  by  vain  discourse,  pass  it  by  honourably: 
and  who  are  not  deaf  and  blind  when  reminded  of  the 
sigrns  of  their  Lord  ! 

"Verily  God  leads  astray  whom  He  pleases,  and 
guides  whom  He  pleases ! 

"  No  burdened  soul  shall  bear  the  burden  of  another : 
he  who  is  pure  is  pure  only  for  himself,  and  unto  God 
the  journey  is. 

"  Those  who  recite  the  Book  of  God,  and  are  steadfast 
in  prayer,  and  give  alms  secretly  and  openly,  hope  for 
the  merchandise  that  perisheth  not ;  that  He  may  pay 
them  their  hire,  and  give  them  increase  of  His  grace  : — 
verily,  He  is  forgiving,  merciful ! 

"  He  who  misbelieves,  his  misbelief  is  for  himself,  and 
God  knows  the  thoughts  of  men ! 

"  Those  who  fear  their  Lord  shall  be  driven  to  paradise 
in  troops ;  until  they  come,  its  doors  shall  be  opened, 
and  its  keeper  shall  say  to  them,  '  Peace  be  upon  you, 


THE  COMMANDMENTS  209 

ye  have  done  well :  so  enter  in  to  dwell  for  aye  ! '  And 
they  shall  say,  '  Praise  be  to  God,  who  hath  made  good 
His  promise  to  us !  .  .  .  And  thou  shalt  see  the  angels 
circling  round  the  throne,  celebrating  the  praises  of 
thy  Lord ! ' 

"  Put  not  with  God  other  gods,  or  thou  wilt  sit 
despised  and  forsaken. 

"  Thy  Lord  hath  decreed  that  ye  shall  not  serve  other 
than  Him !  and  show  kindness  to  parents,  even  to  old 
age. 

"And  give  his  due  to  thy  kinsmen  and  to  the  traveller; 
and  waste  not  wastefully,  for  the  wasteful  were  ever 
the  devil's  brothers. 

"  Make  not  thy  hand  fettered  to  thy  neck,  neither 
spread  it  out  quite  open. 

"And  slay  not  your  children  for  fear  of  poverty: 
We  will  provide  for  them. 

"  And  draw  not  near  to  fornication :  verily  it  is  ever 
an  abomination,  and  evil  is  the  way  thereof. 

"  And  slay  not  the  soul  which  God  has  forbidden  you, 
save  for  just  cause ;  for  he  that  is  slain  unjustly,  we 
have  given  his  next-of-kin  authority  ;  yet  let  him  not 
exceed  in  slaying. 

"And  draw  not  near  the  orphan's  portion,  save  to 
increase  it. 

"  And  give  full  measure  when  ye  measure  out,  and 
weigh  with  a  right  balance. 

"  And  walk  not  proudly  on  tlie  earth, — verily  thou 
canst  nob  cleave  the  earth,  and  thou  shalt  not  reach 
the  mountains  in  height." 

"  The  fellows  of  the  right  hand, — what  right  hicky  fellows  ! 
And  the  foremost  foremost — 
These  are  they  that  are  brought  nigh, 
14 


210      MUHAMMAD  AND   HIS  POWER 

In  gardens  of  pleasure  ! 

A  crowd  of  those  of  yore, 

And  a  few  of  those  of  the  latter  day  ! 

And  gold-weft  couches,  reclining  on  them  face  to  face. 

Around  them  shall  go  eternal  youths,  with  goblets  and  ewers, 
and  a  cup  of  flowing  wine  ;  no  headache  shall  they  feel 
therefrom,  nor  shall  their  wits  be  dimmed  ! 

And  fruits  such  as  they  deem  the  best ; 

And  flesh  of  fowls  as  they  desire  ; 

And  bright  and  large-eyed  maids  like  hidden  pearls  ; 

A  reward  for  that  which  they  have  done ! 

They  shall  hear  no  folly  and  no  sin ; 

Only  the  speech,  '  Peace,  Peace  ! ' 

And  the  fellows  of  the  right — what  right  lucky  fellows  ! 

Amid  thornless  lote- trees. 

And  banana-trees  with  piles  of  fruit ; 

And  outspread  shade, 

And  water  out-poured  ; 

And  fruit  in  abundance,  neither  failing  nor  forbidden  ; 

And  beds  upraised  ! 

Verily,  we  have  created  for  them  a  special  creation, 

And  made  unto  them  virgins,  darlings  of  equal  age  (with  their 
spouses)  for  the  fellows  of  the  right !  " 

These  and  the  like  blessings  are  ever  and  again 
promised  throughout  the  Quran  to  Believers ;  and  the 
wording  of  the  promise  is  skilfully  and  tunefully 
varied,  but  the  character  of  the  delights  continues 
always  on  the  same  low  plane. 

The  reward  is  for  men  and  women  alike,  as  says  the 
Book  :— 

"  Verily — whether  they  be  men  or  women — those  who 
believe,  and  are  devout,  and  truthful,  and  patient,  and 
humble ;  who  give  alms,  and  fast,  and  are  chaste,  and 
remember  God  much, — God  has  prepared  for  them 
forgiveness  and  a  great  reward ! "  (xxxiii.  35). 

Of  the  wicked  it  is  said : — 


HEAVEN  AND   HELL  211 

"Nay,  but  they  call  the  Hour  a  lie;  but  We  have 
prepared,  for  those  who  call  the  Hour  a  lie,  a  blaze : 
when  it  seizes  them  from  a  far-off  place,  they  shall  hear 
its  roaring  and  raging:  and  when  they  are  thrown 
into  a  corner  thereof,  fastened  together,  they  shall  cry 
out  to  be  utterly  destroyed. 

"And  whoso  rebels  against  God  and  His  apostle, 
verily  for  him  is  the  fire  of  hell  to  dwell  therein  for 
ever  and  ever. 

"  Verily,  with  Us  are  heavy  fetters  and  hell-fire,  and 
food  that  chokes  and  grievous  woe. 

"  Verily,  those  who  disbelieve  in  Our  signs,  We  will 
broil  them  with  fire :  whenever  their  skins  are  well 
done.  We  will  change  them  for  other  skins,  that  they 
may  taste  the  torment. 

"  As  for  him  who  is  given  his  book  in  his  left  hand, 
he  shall  say,  '  0,  would  that  I  had  not  received  my 
book !  I  knew  not  what  my  account  would  be.  0, 
would  that  death  had  been  an  end  of  me  !  my  wealth 
availed  me  not !  my  authority  has  perished  from  me  ! ' 
'  Take  him  and  fetter  him,  then  in  hell  broil  him  ! 
then  into  a  chain  whose  length  is  seventy  cubits  force 
him  !  verily  he  believed  not  in  the  mighty  God,  nor 
was  he  careful  to  feed  the  poor :  therefore  he  has  not 
here  to-day  any  warm  friend,  nor  any  food  save  foul 
ichor,  which  none  save  sinners  shall  eat ! '  " 

The  Qwran: — 

"  In  the  name  of  God,  Merciful  and  Compassionate. 

"Verily,  we  sent  it  down  on  the  Night  of 
Power ! 

"  And  what  shall  make  thee  know  what  the  Night  of 
Power  is  ?  —  the  Night  of  Power  is  better  than  a 
thousand  months ! 


212       MUHAMMAD  AND   HIS  POWER 

"  The  angels  and  the  Spirit  descend  therein,  by  the 
permission  of  their  Lord  with  every  bidding. 

"  Peace  it  is  until  rising  of  the  dawn ! 

"  Verily,  it  is  a  revelation  from  the  Lord  of 
the  worlds  ;  the  Faithful  Spirit  (Gabriel)  came 
down  with  it  upon  thy  heart;  in  plain  Arabic  lan- 
guage, ... 

"  A  guidance  and  glad  tidings  to  the  believers,  who 
are  steadfast  in  prayer,  and  give  alms,  and  of  the  here- 
after are  sure. 

"  If  mankind  and  Jinns  united  together  to  bring  the 
like  of  this  Quran,  they  could  not  bring  the  like, 
though  they  should  back  each  other  up. 

"  That  We  might  establish  thy  heart  did  We  send  it 
down  piecemeal." 

Muhammad : — 

"Say,  I  am  only  a  mortal  like  yourselves;  I  am 
inspired  that  your  God  is  only  one  God.  Then 
let  him  who  hopes  to  meet  his  Lord  do  righteous 
deeds,  and  join  none  in  the  service  of  his  Lord  "  (xviii. 
110). 

"  It  is  a  mercy  from  thy  Lord  that  thou  mayest  warn 
a  people  to  whom  no  warner  has  come  before  thee  ; 
haply  they  may  take  heed  "  (xxviii.  46). 

"  Will  they  say  he  has  forged  against  God  a  lie  ?  But 
if  God  pleased  he  could  set  a  seal  upon  thy  heart;  but 
God  will  blot  out  falsehood  and  verify  truth  by  His 
word ;  verily  he  knows  the  nature  of  men's  breasts " 
(xlii.  25). 

"  Say,  0  ye  folk  !  verily  I  am  the  apostle  of  God  unto 
you  all, — of  Him  whose  is  the  kingdom  of  the  heavens 
and  the  earth,  there  is  no  God  but  He !  He  quickens 
and   He  kills!   believe  then  in  God  and  His  apostle, 


DEBT  TO  JUDAISM  213 

the  unlettered  Prophet, — who  believes  in  God  and  in 
His  words, — then  follow  Him  that  haply  ye  may  be 
guided  "(vii.  188). 

"  Those  who  believe  and  do  right  and  believe  in  what 
is  revealed  to  Muhammad, — and  it  is  the  truth  from 
their  Lord, — He  will  cover  for  them  their  offences,  and 
order  their  hearts  aright "  (xlvii.  2). 

"  Say,  I  cannot  control  profit  or  harm  for  myself,  save 
what  God  will "  (vii.  188). 

The  foregoing  extracts  amply  show  how  great  was 
Muhammad's  debt,  for  ideas,  language,  and  imagery, 
to  the  Hebrew  Scriptures.  Our  limits  do  not  permit 
extracts  from  the  long  stories  of  the  patriarchs,  several 
of  which  will  be  found  in  Lane's  Selections  from  the 
Kurdn.  These,  which  occur  each  more  than  once  in 
the  Book,  are  clearly  taken  from  the  Jews,  either  from 
the  Old  Testament  or  the  Talmud ;  the  Quraish  taunted 
Muhammad  with  the  fact,  and  he  defends  himself  in 
the  Quran  by  vehement  assertions  that  all  his  stories 
were  given  him  by  direct  revelation  from  God  through 
Gabriel.  All  this  part  of  the  Book  belongs  to  the 
"  second  Meccan  period,"  and  it  will  be  remembered 
that  one  of  his  warmest  supporters  was  Khadija's 
cousin,  the  aged  and  learned  Jew,  Waraqa.  It  needs, 
however,  no  great  discernment  to  see  how  inferior  is 
Muhammad's  teaching  to  the  great  Hebrew  lawgiver's : 
"  Hear,  0  Israel,  the  Lord  our  God  is  one  Lord  ! "  So, 
too,  the  later  code  compares  but  ill  with  the  Ten  Words, 
the  "  exceeding  broad  "  law. 

It  has  already  been  said  how  inferior  to  the  originals 
of  Moses  are  the  copies  by  Muhammad.  One  phrase 
he  constantly  imitates :  "  When  God  would  create  any- 
thing. He  says  only  BE,  and  it  is,"  a  manifest  echo  of 


214      MUHAMMAD  AND   HIS  POWER 

the  account  in  Genesis  of  the  creation  of  light.  It  will 
not  be  out  of  place  to  quote,  from  the  story  of  Noah  as 
given  in  the  Quran,  what  Sir  W.  Jones  and  other 
scholars  after  him  consider  the  sublimest  passage  in 
the  Book.  It  tells  of  the  destruction  of  one  of  the 
patriarch's  sons, — a  warning  to  those  who  should  reject 
the  message  of  the  latter-day  "  preacher  of  righteous- 
ness." 

"  And  the  ark  floated  on  with  them  'mid  waves  like 
mountains ;  and  Noah  cried  to  his  son  that  had  gone 
aside,  '  0  my  boy !  ride  with  us  and  be  not  with  the 
misbelievers.'  Said  he,  '  I  will  betake  me  to  a  moun- 
tain that  shall  save  me  from  the  water.'  Said  he, 
'  There  is  none  to  save  this  day  from  the  command  of 
God,  except  for  him  on  whom  He  may  have  mercy.' 
And  the  wave  came  between  them,  and  he  was  amono\st 
the  drowned  "  (xi.  44-6). 

Moses  and  his  law  and  his  message  are  often  quoted  ; 
and  when  Muhammad  got  to  Medina  he  had  great 
hopes  that  the  Jews  would  accept  him  as  their  promised 
Messiah ;  but  he  was  soon  undeceived,  and  was  thence- 
forward their  bitter  and  relentless  foe.  From  that  time 
the  Quran  tries  to  do  without  the  Hebrew  Scriptures, 
and  the  law  of  Islam  is  promulgated,  far  inferior  to 
that  of  Israel.  To  take  but  one  insta-nce,  part  of  the 
plague-spot  of  the  later  system :  Moses  commanded 
that,  if  a  woman  were  divorced  and  married  to  a 
second  husband,  her  first  husband  should  in  no  case 
afterwards  marry  her ;  but  the  law  of  Muhammad  is, 
that  if  a  husband  have  put  away  his  wife  by  triple 
divorce,  he  may  take  her  back  again  after  a  ivue 
marriage  to  another,  who  may  divorce  her  the  follow- 
ing day.     This  immoral  and  degi^ading  practice  is  very 


MARRIAGE  AND   SLAVERY  215 

common.^  Moreover,  though  some  schools  forbid  them, 
temporary  marriages  are  (in  Persia  especially)  part  of 
the  law  of  Islam;  and  this  was  clearly  established 
by  solemn  decision  of  doctors  assembled  before  the 
Emperor  Akbar.^ 

The  seclusion  and  degradation  of  women  in  Islam 
need  not  be  dwelt  on.  Muhammad  allows  each  man 
four  wives,  and  unlimited  slave-concubines.  The 
wives  may  be  divorced  at  the  husband's  absolute 
pleasure,  and  the  dowry  regulations  operate  as  but  a 
feeble  restraint.  The  evil  effects  of  the  system  have 
been  gravely  noted  by  every  impartial  observer,  and  it 
may  be  here  remarked  that  Muhammadan  writers  on 
ethics,  such  as  Jalali,  advocate  monogamy  on  moral 
grounds,  as  strongly  as  a  Christian  writer  might. 
Slavery  again  is  fully  sanctioned  in  Islam.  In  his  last 
sermon  at  Mecca,  when  closing  the  Farewell  Pilgrimage, 
Muhammad  bade  his  followers  treat  well  "  their  wives 
and  their  slaves  " ;  the  untold  miseries  of  the  present- 
day  slave-trade  in  Africa  and  in  Central  Asia  are  the 
direct  product  of  Muslim  demand,  and  the  mixed  blood 
throughout  Arabia  is  one  of  its  consequences.  Censure 
is  checked  when  one  reviews  the  history  of  slavery  in 
the  Christian  Roman  Empire  and  in  later  Christendom  ; 
but  here  again  slavery  is  part  of  the  system  of  Islam, 
whereas  in  Europe  and  in  America  the  slowly-working 
leaven  of  Christ's  doctrine,  that  all  men  are  brothers  in 
Him,  has  abolished  the  ownership  of  man  by  man, 
which  is  even  more  hurtful  morally  to  the  master  than 
to  the  slave. 

^  The  interim  liusband  is  called  Mahcdlil,  "one  who  makes  (the  wife) 
lawful."     Burton  is  alone  in  preferring  the  form  MustahiU. 
-  Ain  i  Akbari,  —  Blochman's  Translatioii,  p.  174. 


CHAPTER   XV 

Sliias  and  Sunnis,  the  Great  Schism — Miracle  Play  of  Hasan 
and  Husain — Sufis — Darwesh  Orders — Wahhabis — Islam  in 
Politics — Muslims  in  China — Conclusion. 

With  the  death  of  Ali  and  the  abdication  of  his  eldest 
son,  it  might  have  seemed  that  Islam,  reunited  under 
the  firm  hand  of  Muawiya,  would  continue  one  strong 
empire.  More  than  ever  did  this  seem  assured  when 
the  principle  of  hereditary  succession  was  established 
in  the  person  of  Yazid.  The  contrary  was  the  result : 
the  fatal  field  of  Karbala,  which  seemed  to  extinguish 
for  ever  all  opposition  to  Yazid,  sowed  the  seeds  of  the 
downfall  of  his  race  a  few  generations  later,  and  laid 
the  foundation  of  the  great  political  schism  which  has 
done  so  much  to  weaken  Islam  in  all  succeeding  ages. 
The  beginning  of  the  troubles  goes  back  to  the  days 
of  Uthman,  when  (as  we  saw)  a  Jewish  malcontent 
preached  throughout  Ishlm  the  doctrine  that  the  head- 
ship was  inalienably  fixed  in  the  Prophet's  lineage, 
and  therefore  in  All's  descendants  by  Fatima. 
With  the  election  of  Ali,  after  the  murder  of  his  pre- 
decessor, the  principle  triumphed ;  but  on  his  deathbed 
Ali  himself  expressly  refused  to  ratify  it :  its  revival 
in  full  vio^our  dates  from  the  massacre  of  Husain  and 
his  little  band.  Ali  had  himself  been  harassed  by  the 
revolt  of  the  Kharijites,  a  sort  of  "  Fifth  Monarchy  " 

216 


THE  GREAT  SCHISM  217 

sect  in  Islam,  and  it  was  by  the  hand  of  one  of  their 
fanatics  that  he  fell ;  and  they  continued  for  genera- 
tions afterwards  to  be  a  thorn  in  the  side  of  the 
Khalifas.  But  they  were  never  a  very  large  party, 
and  their  high  theocratic  notions  were  not  calculated 
to  gather  many  adherents :  so  gradually  they  faded 
away. 

It  was  otherwise  with  the  great  schism  of  the  Shias, 
the  partisans  of  the  divine  right  of  Ali,  as  against  the 
"  orthodox  "  Sunnites,  the  followers  (as  they  maintain) 
of  the  siinnat,  or  practice,  of  the  Prophet.  The  shib- 
boleth of  the  latter,  who  form  by  far  the  greatest  part 
of  Islam,  is  the  acknowledgment  of  the  title  of  Abu 
Bakr,  Omar,  and  Uthman,  as  lawful  Successors  of  the 
Prophet.  That  title  the  Shias  utterly  deny,  they  heap 
curses  on  the  memories  of  the  "  Usurpers,"  insult  their 
names,  tombs,  and  memorials,  and  by  a  strange  and 
perverse  delusion  deify  the  Prophet's  line. 

At  the  present  day,  Persia  is  the  land  of  the  Shia 
schism,  orthodox  Islam  follows  the  Sunni  doctrine. 
The  adherents  of  the  schism  may  be  reckoned  at 
perhaps  not  more  than  ten  or  twelve  millions,  less 
than  one-tenth  of  the  whole  "  Faithful " ;  but,  politically, 
the  religious  division  between  Persia  and  Turkey  has 
been,  especially  in  the  century  that  has  just  closed,  of 
vast  importance,  greatly  weakening  both  as  against 
the  overshadowing  power  of  Russia.  The  Shia  move- 
ment in  Persia  was  largely  national.  The  rallying- 
point  of  All's  name,  as  against  the  Syrian  dynasty 
which  Persia  both  hated  and  feared,  fell  in  with  the 
national  feeling  which  recent  Muslim  conquest  had 
scarcely  weakened.  Ali  had  chosen  Kiifa  for  his 
capital,  and  the  fact  that  its  wavering  and  fickleness 


2i8       MUHAMMAD  AND   HIS  POWER 

had  led  to  the  final  tragedy  of  his  family  only  strength- 
ened Persia's  fervid  allegiance  to  his  claims.^  In  an 
earlier  chapter  we  have  seen  how  legend  told  of  the 
prophetic  light  which  beamed  from  generation  to 
generation  on  the  brows  of  Muhammad's  ancestors ; 
with  this  Shia  fancy  connected  the  creation,  "  in  the 
beginning,"  of  the  "  Light  of  Muhammad,"  the  first 
created  thing,  which  existed  for  long  ages  —  long 
enough  almost  to  satisfy  a  modern  geologist ! — before 
the  heavens  and  the  earth  came  into  being.  In  some 
mysterious  fashion  the  Prophet's  immediate  descendants 
are  associated  with  this  pre-existence,  and  the  whole 
succession  is  semi-divine.  It  is  easily  understood  how 
such  a  doctrine  brands  as  blasphemers,  as  well  as 
traitors,  all  who  revolt  against  it.  With  the  "  orthodox  " 
party  the  succession  is  in  the  Khalifas,  appointed 
originally  by  direct  vote  of  the  "  Faithful  " ;  the  Shias 
hold  a  succession,  inalienable  from  the  Prophet's  family, 
of  Imams,  limited  to  twelve,  of  whom  the  last,  the 
Mahdi  (  =  "  leader  "),  has  vanished  for  a  time  from  the 
eyes  of  men,  and  is  to  return  again  before  the  end  of 
the  world.  Meanwhile,  the  visible  headship  of  Islam 
is  in  abeyance,  and  the  faithful  long  for  the  blessed 
day  of  his  reappearance.  "  Imam  "  is  a  spiritual  title, 
meaning,  in  ordinary  usage,  the  person  who  leads  the 
public  prayer,  and  whose  voice  and  gestures  the  con- 
gregation follows.  In  the  early  days  of  Islam,  presiding 
at  public  prayer  belonged  of  right  to  the  political 
leader,  but  the  Prophet's  command  was  that  the  Imam 
should  be  he  who  was  best  versed  in  the  Quran.  The 
name  lias  been  chosen  by  the  Shias  for  tlie  religious 

^  The  whole  subject  is  excellently  treated  in  Sir  L,  Felly's  Introduc- 
tion to  the  Persian  Miracle  Play. 


SHIAS  AND  SUNNIS  219 

and  political  chief  of  Islam,  according  to  their  doctrine; 
it  is  also  the  title  used  by  Muhammad  himself  in  the 
Traditions,  when  he  is  enforcing  that  passive  and 
absolute  obedience  which  he  claimed  as  his  own  right, 
and  which  he  declared  was  due  to  the  Chief  of  the 
Faith.  The  Shias  maintain,  naturally,  that  Muhammad 
formally  and  solemnly  proclaimed  Ali  his  successor,  and 
also  that,  when  on  his  deathbed  he  called  for  a  tablet 
and  pen  to  write  down  "  a  direction  which  should  keep 
his  people  from  error,"  he  intended  to  write  down 
his  nomination  of  Ali,  and  that  Abu  Bakr  and  Omar 
refused  what  he  asked,  hypocritically  alleging  (as  they 
sa}^)  that  the  Quran  was  perfect  and  sufficient  guid- 
ance. So  throughout  the  centuries  Shia  and  Sunni 
have  fought,  and  cursed,  and  slain,  and  enslaved  one 
another.  In  Persia  to  this  day  the  saying  goes  that 
"  you  may  curse  with  impunity  anyone  and  anything 
except  the  holy  Imams  and  the  wife  of  the  man  you 
are  addressing " ;  in  Arabia  the  Persian  pilgrims  to 
Mecca  are  plundered  and  abused  as  heretics,  and  they 
are  said  to  have  been  guilty  at  Medhia  of  the  grossest 
and  filthiest  violation  of  the  tombs  of  the  first  two 
Khalifas. 

Once  a  year  comes  the  great  sacred  season  of  the 
Shias,  in  the  first  ten  days  of  Muharram,  on  the  tenth 
of  which  month  occurred  the  tragedy  of  Karbala. 
During  these  days  is  performed,  wherever  Shias 
congregate,  but  with  most  pomp  and  ceremony  in 
the  cities  of  Persia,  the  great  Miracle  Play  of  the 
Martyrdom  of  Hasan  and  Husain.  The  house  of 
every  pious  Shia  who  can  afford  it  holds  permanent 
shrines,  varying  in  costliness  according  to  his  wealth, 
of  the  Holy  Martyrs.     As  soon  as  the  new  moon  of 


220      MUHAMMAD  AND   HIS  POWER 

Muharram  is  seen,  the  sacred  ceremonies  begin,  though 
the  preparation  is  made  for  a  week  beforehand. 
Shrines  of  the  martyrs  are  displayed  on  a  stage  in 
temporary  theatres,  draped  in  black  to  express  the 
mourning  of  every  true  heart ;  and  dramatic  readings 
are  given  night  after  night  to  crowded  audiences  of  the 
moving  tale  of  Husain  and  his  little  band  of  faithful 
followers  hurrying  through  the  desert  to  their  doom 
before  false,  fickle  Kiifa,  whose  promises  had  lured 
them  to  destruction.  Gradually  the  passion  of  the 
hearers  is  wrought  up  to  frenzy :  sobs,  and  moans,  and 
floods  of  tears,  witness  to  their  grief,  while  many  even 
gash  themselves  with  knives  in  sympathy  with  the  old, 
pathetic  story.  On  the  seventh  day  is  commemorated 
the  weddino^  of  Hasan's  son  to  Husain's  dauo-hter, 
when  the  marriage  rejoicings  throw  into  heightened 
contrast  the  gloom  of  general  massacre  that  follows. 
On  the  ensuing  nights  are  told  and  represented  the 
moving  tale  of  the  final  conflict,  with  every  circum- 
stance of  horror  and  agony :  consuming  thirst,  un- 
availing valour  in  fight,  fruitless  entreaties  for  mercy ; 
sword,  and  flame,  and  insult  to  the  dead, — all  is  faith- 
fully and  minutely  depicted.  So  real  are  the  passions 
excited  that  Yazid's  men  are  pelted  and  cursed,  and  it 
has  even  happened  that  the  "  murderer  of  Husain  "  has 
himself  been  murdered  by  a  frenzied  fanatic.  With 
the  tenth  day  the  ceremonies  end,  the  empty  shrines 
being  cast  into  the  water, — and  the  final  prayers  are 
said.  The  whole  ceremonies  are  vivid  and  impressive, 
and  the  annual  celebration  keeps  strongly  alive  the 
great  schism  of  Islam :  in  Bombay,  and  elsewhere  in 
India,  it  often  needs  the  strong  liand  of  military  power 
to  prevent  riot  and  bloodshed  between  the  rival  sects. 


SHIA  MYSTICISM  221 

The  tenth  of  Muharram,  it  may  be  noted,  is  observed 
by  Sunnis  as  a  great  and  most  excellent  day,  that 
on  which  the  Almighty  created  Adam  and  Eve,  His 
throne,  the  pen,  the  Tablet  of  fate,  life  and  death, 
Heaven  and  Hell. 

Into  the  Miracle  Play  are  introduced  scenes  in 
heaven,  Muhammad,  and  Ali,  and  Fatima;  and  the 
doctrine  of  prevailing  intercession  with  the  Almighty 
is  carried  to  an  extreme,  teaching  which  is  directly 
opposed  to  that  of  the  Prophet  himself. 

As  the  Shia  heresy  rests  on  the  cult  of  Ali  as  semi- 
divine,  so  are  traced  back  to  him  also  the  singular 
doctrines  of  Siifiism,  which  also  is  the  corruption  of 
Islam  by  the  mysticism  of  Persia  and  perhaps  also 
the  pantheism  of  India.  The  cardinal  doctrine  of 
Muhammad  is  that  the  Creator  is  absolutely  exalted 
above  the  creation,  which  came  into  existence  by  the 
word  of  His  power,  and  that  the  individual  souls  of 
His  creatures  will  after  death  be  judged  by  Him  and 
receive  from  Him  their  doom  for  eternity.  The  very 
opposite  of  this  is  the  Sufi  teaching.  It  came  into 
prominence  about  two  centuries  after  the  Flight,  and 
gave  for  about  one  hundred  and  fifty  years  a  dynasty 
to  Persia,  the  memory  of  which  survives  in  our  own 
tongue  in  the  word  "  Sophy  "  for  the  king  of  Persia. 
To-day  its  countless  schools  of  Faqirs  or  Darweshes 
(Arabic  and  Persian  respectively  for  "  Mendicant  ")  are 
spread  through  the  whole  domain  of  Islam,  and  in 
their  various  orgiastic  rites  as  "  howling,"  "  dancing," 
"whirling,"  and  the  like,  present  to  the  foreigner 
the  most  striking  caricature  of  their  religion.  No 
saying  of  Muhammad  was  more  characteristic  than 
this :  "  There  is  no  monkery  in  Islam,"  and  withdrawal 


222       MUHAMMAD  AND   HIS  POWER 

from  the  active  duties  of  civil  and  social  life  he  con- 
stantly and  severely  censured.  Moreover,  it  is  funda- 
mental that  every  man  makes  approach  for  himself  to 
the  Creator  :  there  is  no  regular  established  priesthood, 
but  any  Muslim  is  qualified  to  lead  public  devotions. 
All  this  we  shall  find  ignored  or  reversed  in  the 
mystical  system  of  the  Sufis,  whose  votaries  are  to  be 
found  in  every  corner  of  Islam. 

The  origin  of  the  name,  as  of  so  many  religious 
terms,  is  disputed.  Some  connect  it  with  the  Arabic 
saf,  "  pure,"  because  purity  of  heart  is  the  first  re- 
quisite ;  others  with  suf,  "  wool,"  because  the  votary's 
dress  is  of  coarse  woollen  stuflf;  but  more  probably  the 
name  is  originally  the  Greek  cofj/a,  that  transcendental 
wisdom  to  which  the  Gnostics  aspired  and  pretended. 
The  same  passion  which  drove  the  early  Christians  in 
thousands  to  solitude  in  the  deserts  of  Arabia  and 
Egypt,  which  in  all  ages  since  has  sent  others  crowding 
into  monasteries,  drove  Muslim  devotees — hungering 
after  a  more  spiritual  doctrine  than  the  formal  religion 
of  the  Founder,  to  group  themselves  in  communities 
round  teachers  of  special  repute  for  sanctity.  To  the 
head  of  his  community,  the  Pir  ("Ancient")  or 
Miirsliid  ("  Director "),  the  most  absolute  obedience 
was  paid ;  the  ceremonies  of  initiation  vary,  and  the 
degrees  of  austerity  required  are  at  the  absolute  dis- 
cretion of  the  head;  the  special  teaching  given  is 
secret,  and  the  disciples  are  discouraged  or  even  pro- 
hibited from  revealing  it.  But  the  main  doctrine  is 
the  same  throughout.  The  soul  of  man  is  in  exile, 
imprisoned  in  the  body ;  it  is  an  emanation  from  God, 
and — by  a  gloss  on  Muhammad's  doctrine,  "To  Him 
do   we   return," — the   Sufis   teach   that    the    ultimate 


SUFIISM  223 

aim  of  man  is  to  win  reunion  with  or  absorption  in  the 
Divine.  To  attain  to  this  is  his  end,  and  the  means 
are  detachment  from  the  world,  its  pleasures  and  its 
pains,  self-discipline,  unwearied  meditation  on  God, 
absolute  devotion  to  Him.  The  pathway  to  perfection 
is  the  Sufi's  pilgrimage;  the  soul  is  one  with  the 
Creator,  and  when  at  last  that  Oneness  is  realised,  the 
Union  is  complete,  and  the  soul  finds  its  perfect  bliss, 
losing  itself  and  its  personal  consciousness  in  Him,  a 
state  which  it  is  not  easy  to  distinguish  from  the 
Buddhist  Nirvana.  In  regard  to  religion,  the  Sufis 
hold  that  only  in  the  lowest  stage  of  the  quest  after 
perfection  are  external  observances  binding  on  or 
serviceable  to  the  devout  soul.  As  soon  as  the  disciple 
is  fully  penetrated  with  love  to  God,  he  becomes  "  free 
from  the  law " ;  Divine  love  driving  out  from  his 
heart  all  worldly  desires,  he  reaches  the  stage  of 
"seclusion,"  Zithd;  occupying  himself  then  with  ex- 
clusive meditation  on  the  nature  and  perfections  of 
God,  he  attains  to  "  knowledge  "  ;  "  knowledge  "  carries 
him  forward  to  "ecstasy,"  in  which  he  receives  a 
revelation  of  the  true  nature  of  Godhead,  the  stage  of 
"  truth " ;  from  this  he  advances  to  the  last  stage, 
"union"  with  the  Divine, — which  may  be  reached 
even  in  this  life,  though  the  final  consummation, 
"absorption,"  does  not  take  place  till  the  "muddy 
vesture  of  decay  "  is  put  oflf. 

Such  is  the  Sufis'  mystical  journey,  and  it  is  easy  to 
see  how  dangerous  to  morality  is  a  system  which  at 
an  early  stage  casts  off"  all  the  outward  restraints  of 
religion.  With  a  mixture  of  fatalism,  sanctioned  by 
the  words  of  the  Quran,  they  hold  that  all  men's 
actions   are   really   controlled   and   foreordained,    and 


224      MUHAMMAD  AND  HIS  POWER 

therefore  that  man  is  not  morally  responsible  for  his 
deeds.  Nay,  the  devotee  who  deems  himself  to  have 
attained  to  "  union  "  has  been  heard  to  proclaim  him- 
self God,  and  to  suffer  death  for  the  blasphemy.  The 
highest  expression  of  these  Shia  doctrines,  the  Bible 
(so  to  speak)  of  the  sect,  is  contained  in  the  mystical 
poetry  of  Persia, — in  Jami,  Hafiz,  Jalal  ud  din,  and 
others;  there  Wine  and  Love  are  the  emblems  of 
spiritual  aspirations — and  the  imagery  is  carried  to 
extreme  lengths. 

The  Sufis  are  divided  into  many  sects  and  schools, 
but  we  need  not  pursue  the  subject.  Nor  need  w^e 
notice  other  divisions  and  heresies  of  Islam  that  have 
during  the  ages  developed ;  the  eternal  problem  of 
Fate  and  Free-will,  the  controversies  on  the  Beinor  and 
attributes  of  God,  and  the  other  religious  questions 
raised  or  stimulated  by  contact  with  other  races  and 
systems  of  thought.  But  the  strange  revival  of 
orthodox  doctrine  and  practice,  the  creed  of  the 
Wahhabis,  must  be  briefly  noticed,  especially  as 
at  one  time  it  bade  fair  to  have  important  political 
results. 

It  was  founded  in  the  early  part  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  and  w^as  an  attempt  to  restore  Islam  to  its 
earliest  purity,  freed  from  the  corruptions  which  had 
defaced  it  from  the  grand  simplicity  of  its  Founder  and 
his  contemporaries.  Championed  by  some  able  and 
ambitious  chiefs  of  Najd,  a  dynasty  was  founded 
and  still  rules  in  Central  Arabia,  thoucdi  much  shorn 
of  the  power  which  once  it  wielded.  Burkhardt  and 
Palgrave  specially  studied  the  revival,  and  the  latter 
has  written  on  the  subject  a  most  charming  and  learned 
book.      He  found  that  in  the  capital  of  Muslim  ortho- 


WAHHABI   REVIVAL  225 

doxy,  nearly  forty  years  ago,  formalism  and  bigotry 
reigned  supreme,  but  the  moral  law  was  reduced  to  the 
avoidance  of  polytheism  and  abstinence  from  wine  and 
tobacco !  All  other  crimes  and  offences  were  venial : 
"Allah  is  very  Pitiful," — but  idolatry  and  "drinking 
the  shameful,"  that  is  smoking,  should  find  forgiveness 
neither  in  this  world  nor  the  next.  Wahhabi  tenets 
spread  widely  among  the  Mussulmans  of  India,  and 
at  one  time  assumed  a  threatening  aspect ;  but  the 
danger  is  now  at  all  events  latent.  But  the  horrors 
of  the  great  Mutiny,  and  the  constant  troubles  from 
fanatics  on  the  northern  and  western  frontiers  of  the 
peninsula,  with  the  events  of  recent  years  from  the 
pretended  Mahdi  and  his  Khalifa  in  the  Soudan, 
warn  us  what  terrible  forces  are  still  at  the  call  of 
Islam. 

In  India  there  has  been  an  interchange  of  evil  be- 
tween Islam  and  Hinduism :  the  former  has  adopted 
much  of  the  spirit  of  caste  and  the  idolatrous  worship 
of  saints  and  sacred  shrines,  and  has  given  in  exchange 
the  ruinous  system  of  the  seclusion  of  women, — so  easy 
is  the  infection  of  evil !  Among  the  most  important 
conquests  of  the  Prophet's  faith,  however,  are  some  of 
the  fairest  and  richest  provinces  of  China,  and  they 
may  yet  play  a  great  part  in  the  history  of  the  Far 
East.  The  attempt,  twenty-five  years  ago,  to  found  a 
strong  power  in  Central  Asia  failed ;  Yarkand  was 
crushed  between  Russia  and  China,  as  between  the 
upper  and  nether  millstones ;  but  since  that  time  the 
Mussulmans  of  China,  some  of  the  best,  most  warlike, 
and  most  enterprising  material  to  be  found  in  the 
empire,  are  said  to  have  increased  from  an  estimated 
twenty  millions  to  thirty  millions ;  and  the  shrewd 
15 


226       MUHAMMAD  AND   HIS  POWER 

German  Emperor  suggested  but  the  other  day  to  his 
"friend  and  ally"  at  Constantinople  that  a  Holy 
War  should  be  preached  among  them  against  the 
Manchu  tyranny.  That  such  a  movement  is  possible 
no  one  will  deny,  though  it  is  strange  to  find  the 
project  championed  by  a  Christian  monarch,  who 
perhaps  dreams  of  reviving  in  Europe  the  Holy  Roman 
Empire  ! 

In  the  foregoing  pages  I  have  attempted  briefly  to 
tell  the  history  of  the  rise  and  early  conquests  of  one  of 
the  great  religions  of  the  world,  and  especially  to  tell 
the  life-story  of  its  Founder.     Sprung  from  one  of  the 
noblest  families  of  Mecca,  the  immemorial  shrine  of 
idol- worship  for  all  Arabia,  he  grew  up  amidst  idol- 
atry; but  in  early  manhood  he  caught  the  breeze  of 
revolt  from  that  gross  superstition  in  which  he  had 
been  nurtured,  and  for  many  years  stood  forth  among 
his  people  to  witness  for  and  preach  a  purer  faith, — the 
mark   of   scorn,   insult,   and   persecution.      Gradually 
his    genius,   earnestness,   and    high    moral    character 
gathered  round  him  a  little  band  of  followers,  men  and 
women  of  all  ranks,  and  all  alike  absolutely  devoted  to 
their   leader.     When  the  fit  time  came,  when  he  was 
assured  of  a  welcome  and  power  in  Medina,  he  forsook 
his    native   city;    slowly   and   cautiously,   but   never 
wavering  in  his  ambitious  plans,  he  won  his  way  into 
the  hearts  of  men  and  built  up  a  strong  power  in  Arabia, 
bound  together  by  faith  in  his  mission,  and  that  abso- 
lute devotion  to  his  person  which  only  the  rarest  of  men 
can  command.     But  as  his  power  grew,  his  character 
suffered.     The  lust  of  rule  ate  like  a  canker  into  his 
soul ;  he  shrank  from  no  cruelty  or  treachery  to  compass 
his  ends,  though  he  was  never  cruel  when  unreserved 


GENERAL  REVIEW  227 

submission  was  made.  His  debt  to  the  Jews  and  to 
their  Scriptures  may  be  read  in  every  page  of  his  Book, 
yet  he  shrank  not  from  the  blasphemy  of  saying  that 
every  word  of  his  pretended  revelation  had  been  given 
to  him  directly  by  God  through  the  Archangel  Gabriel. 
He  justified  his  vagrant  love  and  his  jealousy  of  his 
wives  by  the  command  of  the  Almighty,  registered  (as 
he  taught)  from  all  eternity  in  the  highest  heaven. 
Shutting  his  eyes  to  the  purer  light  of  Jewish  and 
Christian  revelation,  he  assumed  by  his  own  teaching 
to  supersede  them  both.  Yet  we  have  seen  that  the 
morality  of  the  latest,  falls  far  below  that  of  the  earlier 
religions ;  the  whole  position  of  women  was  changed  for 
the  worse,  and  instead  of  the  equal  and  help  of  her  hus- 
band the  wife  was  degraded  to  be  his  slave  and  his  toy ; 
slavery  was  sanctioned  as  of  divine  institution  for  all 
time ;  the  savage  law  of  retaliation  and  blood-revenge 
was  re-enacted,  and  the  inhuman  and  barbarous  penal- 
ties of  mutilation  for  theft  and  robbery  were  com- 
manded. Freedom  of  thought  and  liberty  of  conscience 
were  stifled,  and  the  sword  was  called  in  to  compel  when 
persuasion  failed.  When  he  meddled  with  the  calendar, 
Muhammad  made  inextricable  confusion.  Presumptu- 
ously declaring  that  on  a  certain  day  the  seasons  had 
returned  to  the  point  at  which  they  stood  when  God 
placed  man  upon  earth,  he  fixed  a  lunar  year  of  twelve 
months,  which  has  been  ever  since  a  source  of  trouble 
and  annoyance.  Professing  to  establish  a  universal 
religion,  he  stultified  himself  by  laying  down  rules  for 
the  annual  month  of  fasting  which  could  by  no  possi- 
bility be  observed  in  extreme  northern  or  extreme 
southern  latitudes.  Tried,  in  fact,  by  all  those  tests 
which  he  himself  challenged,  his  religion  is  shown  to  be 


228       MUHAMMAD  AND   HIS  POWER 

not  of  God  and  himself  to  lie  under  the  condemnation 
he  pronounces  on  those  who  speak  without  warrant  in 
God's  name. 

I  have  briefly  outlined  the  early  political  conquests 
of  the  new  faith,  when  under  able  captains  the  resist- 
less valour  of  Arabia's  locust-like  swarms  of  warriors 
subdued  the  fairest  and  most  fruitful  lands  of  Asia  and 
northern  Africa,  strongholds  which  it  possesses  to  this 
day.  We  have  seen  how  soon  wealth  corrupted  the 
first  simplicity  of  Islam,  how  ambition  deluged  its 
kingdoms  with  civil  bloodshed,  and  yet  how  firm  a 
grasp  that  false  system  still  has  over  one-sixth  of  the 
whole  human  race  ;  and  how  deeply  founded  is,  after 
nearly  thirteen  hundred  years,  the  baleful  power  of 
Muhammad. 

If  it  be  thought  that  the  judgment  passed  on  the 
Prophet  of  Arabia  is  harsh,  let  it  be  remembered  that 
the  evidence  on  which  it  rests  comes  all  from  the  lips 
and  the  pens  of  his  own  devoted  adherents.  The  voice  of 
foes  or  detractors  of  his  own  time,  or  of  time  immedi- 
ately following,  has  not  reached  the  ears  of  later  ages. 
Everything  that  could  tend  to  his  glory  was  eagerly 
sought  out  and  treasured  up  b}^  men  jealous  of  his  good 
name,  and  everything  that  might  seem  to  detract  there- 
from was  carefully  suppressed.  His  lightest  words 
were  sacred  to  them,  his  most  trifling  actions  were  the 
example  they  strove  to  follow.  To  them  he  was  high- 
est and  most  excellent  of  the  creatures  of  God's  hand, 
last  and  most  perfect  of  the  messengers  who  declared 
His  will  to  man.  The  vast  body  of  tradition 
which  was  traced  back  to  the  lips  of  those  who  had 
most  closely  companied  with  him  was  jealously  sifted 
and  scrutinised,  though  not  tested  by  the  canons  of 


CONCLUSION  229 

western  criticism;  it  is  on  this  that  our  knowledge 
is  founded,  and  our  judgment  passed,  —  and  the 
followers  of  the  Prophet  can  scarcely  complain  if, 
even  on  such  evidence,  the  verdict  of  history  goes 
against  him. 


APPENDICES 

APPENDIX  A. 

Woman  and  the  Future  Life. 

Muhammad  taught  clearly  and  definitely  (Q.  xxxiii.  35)  that 
Paradise  was  to  be  the  reward  of  good  women  no  less  than  of 
good  men.  He  left,  however,  the  nature  of  their  enjoyments 
to  be  inferred.  But  the  not  uncommon  belief  that  Muslims 
hold  that  women  either  have  no  souls,  or  that  their  souls 
perish  at  the  death  of  the  body,  is  no  groundless  calumny  of 
the  Christian.     If  Hood  sang  of 

"  the  barbarous  Turk, 
Where  woman  has  never  a  soul  to  save," 

the  Prophet  himself  said  that  "  Hell  was  for  the  most  part 
peopled  with  women  " ;  and  there  is  remarkable  recent  evidence 
that  the  belief  that  women  do  not  live  after  death  is  held  by 
educated  Muslims. 

Sir  Edward  Malet,  in  his  charming  book  of  recollections 
{Shifting  Scenes),  records  a  conversation  he  had  with  the  late 
Khedive  of  Egypt  (Taufiq),  Tewfik  Pasha,  for  whom  Sir 
Edward  had  high  regard.  There  was  fear  that  the  rebels 
would  storm  the  palace  and  murder  the  Khedive  and  all  his 

231 


232  APPENDICES 

family,  and  Tewfik  explained  the  abject  terror  of  his  wives  by- 
saying,  "  For  them,  you  know,  existence  ends  absolutely  with 
death."  If  the  Khedive  of  Egypt  held  such  a  belief,  it  is 
probably  common  among  his  co-religionists. 


APPENDIX  B. 

The  Mussulman  Calendar. 

The  Muhammadan  Era  (a.h.)  dates  from  the  Flight  of  the 
Prophet  from  Mecca  to  Medina,  a.d.  622.  It  begins,  however, 
not  from  the  day  of  the  Flight,  but  from  1st  Muharram  of  that 
(Arab)  year,  corresponding  to  April-May.  The  old  Arab 
year,  like  the  Greek,  was  luni-solar,  a  correction  being  made 
by  intercalary  months  as  required  :  the  system,  according  to 
Al  Blrunl,  was  borrowed  from  the  Jews.  But  at  the  Farewell 
Pilgrimage,  in  the  last  year  of  his  life,  Muhammad  by  pro- 
clamation (Q.  ix.  38)  abolished  the  intercalary  system  as  a 
pagan  usage,  and  declared  that  thenceforward  the  years  should 
consist  each  of  twelve  lunar  months.  The  Hijra  Era  was 
officially  instituted  by  Omar,  seventeen  years  after  the  Flight. 

The  present  year  1901  a.d.  is  1319  a.h.  (20th  April  = 
1  Muharram),  and  the  complex  rule  for  converting  the  year 
a.h.  into  A.D.  is  as  follows  (H.  H.  Wilson) :  Multiply  the 
H.  year  by  2977,  the  difference  between  100  solar  and  100 
Muhammadan  years  :  divide  the  product  by  100,  and 
deduct  the  quotient  from  the  a.h.  ;  then  add  to  the  result 
621*569, — and  the  sum  is  the  a.d.  The  rule  for  the  con- 
version of  A.D.  into  A.H.  is  even  more  complicated. 

The   old  Arab   names   for   the   months  of  the  year  were 


APPENDICES  233 

retained  in  Islam,  and  had  been  given  from  the  natural 
character  of  the  seasons.  When,  therefore,  owing  to  the 
lunar  computation,  the  months  gradually  retrograded  through 
the  whole  year,  the  names  were  often  absurdly  at  variance 
with  the  reality  of  the  season.  One  effect  of  the  change  has 
been  to  make  the  severity  of  the  Fast  of  Kamadhan  to  vary 
from  year  to  year. 


APPENDIX  C. 
An  Original  Despatch  of  Muhammad. 

Sir  W.  Muir  expresses  in  his  Life  of  MaJiomet  a  hope, 
which  is  not  unreasonable,  that  we  may  yet  recover  the 
original  letters  of  protection  granted  by  the  Prophet  to 
Christian  chiefs.  We  do,  however,  possess  the  equally  inter- 
esting summons  addressed,  in  7  a.h.,  to  Muqauqas,  Governor 
of  Egypt,  calling  upon  him  to  embrace  Islam.  An  identical 
summons  was  addressed  (see  pp.  121  and  foil.)  to  the  Emperor 
Heraclius,  the  King  of  Persia,  and  others. 

The  despatch  already  existed  in  the  Traditions,  as  having 
been  handed  down  by  Ibn  Abbas,  who  cites  that  which  was 
addressed  to  Heraclius.  The  original  document,  which  the 
late  learned  Dr.  P.  Badger  declared  to  be  genuine,  was  dis- 
covered in  1858  by  some  French  travellers  at  a  convent  in 
Upper  Egypt,  and  is  now  preserved  at  Constantinople.  It  is 
thus  translated  by  Dr.  Badger  : 

"  In  the  Name  of  God,  the  Pitiful,  the  Compassionate  ! 
From  Muhammad,  the  servant  of  God  and  His  Prophet,  to 
Mukaukis,  the  head  of  the  Copts.  Peace  be  upon  him  who 
follows   the   right  way    (Islam).     Further,    I    write   you   to 


234  APPENDICES 

embrace  Islam  :  become  a  Muslim  and  you  will  bo  saved,  (and) 
God  will  vouchsafe  you  a  double  reward  ;  but  if  you  decline, 
you  will  be  answerable  for  the  calamities  which  shall  befall 
the  Copts.  1  0,  people  of  the  Booh  (having  Sacred  Scriptures), 
come  ye  to  a  just  judgment  hetioeen  21s  and  you. — That  we 
worship  not  aught  hut  God,  and  that  we  associate  nothing  ivith 
Him  (as  a  plurality  of  persons),  and  that  the  one  of  us  take  not 
the  other  for  lords  (Rabbis)  beside  God.  Then  if  they  decline, 
say :  Bear  ye  witness  that  ive  are  Muslims. ^^ 


{Seal) 


The  above  is  taken  from  Sir.  W.  Smith's  Dictionary   of 
Christian  Biography,  art.  Muhammad  (by  Dr.  G.  Badger). 

^  Quran  iii.  57. 


INDEX 


uncle, 
him, 


at 


Abbas,     Muhammad's 

Aqaba,    80  ;     Avarns 

converted,  127. 
Abdallah,     Muhammad's     father  : 

redeemed,    39 ;   marries   Amina, 

and  dies,  40. 
Abdallah,  blind  man,  66. 
Abdallah,  Khazraj  chief:  befriends 

Jews,  97,  99  ;  at  Uhud,  99,  103  ; 

troubles  Muhammad,  108  ;  dies, 

140. 
Abd  al  Manaf,  37,  49. 
Abd  al  Muttalib   redigs  Zemzem  : 

redeems     Abdallah,    39 ;     dies, 

44. 
Abralia,  Abyssinian  general,  29. 
Abraham,   2;    "faith  of,"  42,   63; 

"station  of,"  128. 
Abu  Bakr  converted,  61 ;  described, 

62  ;  shares  Flight,   81  ;  at  Badr, 

93,   and   Uhud,   100  ;  at  Mecca, 

140  ;  first  Khalifa,  146  ;  defends 

Medina,     164 ;    character,     162  ; 

dies,  168. 
Abu  Jahl,  Muhammad's  uncle  and 

foe,  62,  95. 
Abu    Lalib,    62,    64 ;     cursed    in 

Quran,  65. 
Abu  Musa,  133,  189. 
Abu   Sufiyan,    92,    97;    at   Uhud, 

100  ;  besieges  Medina,   115  ;  his 

murder     attempted,     118 ;    con- 
verted, 127. 
Abu  Talib,  Muhammad's  uncle  and 

protector,  49,  66,  75 


235 


Abu  Ubaid,  169. 

Abyssinia,  29 ;  receives  Muslims, 
71  ff.,  122. 

Ad,  impious  Arab  tribe,  miracu- 
lously destroyed,  68. 

Alexandria  taken,  175  ;  librarj^, 
205. 

All,  53,  61,  64;  at  Badr,  93; 
marries  Fatima,  98  ;  at  Uhud, 
100;  Medina,  115;  Qanms,  122; 
at  Mecca,  140  ;  succeeds  Utli- 
man,  185  ;  war  with  Muawiya, 
188;  his  "divine  right,"  184; 
deposed,  189 ;  murdered,  190  ; 
worshipped  by  Sbias,  221. 

Allah,  doctrine  of,  198  ff. 

Allat,  Al  Uzza,  idols,  34,  74. 

Alms,  156. 

Amina,  Muhammad's  mother,  3, 
40,  48. 

Amru  converted,  125  ;  takes  Egypt, 
173  ;  his  mosque,  175. 

Antioch,  30  ;  taken,  167. 

Apostasy  punished  Avith  death, 
203. 

Aqaba,  pledges  of,  79,  80. 

Aqraba  (Yamama),  battle,  165. 

Arab  character,  11,  17 ;  poetry, 
14,  16,  18  ;  language,  15  ;  ideals, 
24. 

Arabia,  1,  6  ;  described,  7,  etc. 

Arrows  of  divination,  18. 

Ashraf  murdered,  97. 

Asmtl  murdered,  96. 

Assassination,  96,  97,  102,  118. 


236 


INDEX 


Alls  and  Khazraj,  tribes  at  Medina, 
35,  79,  90,  etc. 

Ayesha,  77 ;  involved  in  scandal 
and  acquitted,  109,  111  ;  nurses 
Muhammad  in  last  illness, 
144  ff\;  opposes  Ali,  187;  source 
of  tradition,  187. 

Ayla,  John  of,  Christian  chief,  139, 

Bade,  battle,  93  ff. ;  fair,  105. 

Bani  Asad,  102 ;  Amir,  103 ; 
Mustaliq,  108 ;  Saad,  foster- 
brethren  of  Muhammad,  45,  130. 

Baraka,  nurse  of  Muhammad,  44,  48. 

Battles  :  Badr,  93  ;  Buath,  36  ;  of 
"Camel,"  187;  "  of  chains,"  187; 
Jalaula,  172  ;  Karbala,  190  ; 
Nahawand,  172  ;  Qadisiya,  171  ; 
Siffin,  188  ;  Uhud,  100  ;  Ya- 
mama,  165  ;  Yarmuk,  170 ; 
Zu  Kar,  30. 

Battle-cry,  5,  99. 

Bedouins,  4,  10,  15. 

Bible.  Muhammad  borrowed  from, 
203. 

Bilal,  slave-convert,  "crier"  of 
Islam,  70,  124. 

Black  Stone,  kissed  by  pilgrims,  2, 
54,  124. 

Brotherhood,  12,  90. 

Burton,  SirR.,  quoted,  10,  12,124w., 
141  w.,  156  71.,  157,  177,178,198. 

Cairo,  8  ;  founded,  175. 

Calendar,  Muslim,  App.  B. 

Call  to  prayer,  89,  155. 

"Carpe  Diem,"  21. 

Chivalry  in  Old  Arabia,  11,  15. 

Christianity  in  Arabia,    1,    4,   25  ; 

compared  with  Islam,  158,  202. 
Circumambulation,  34,  124. 
Climate,  its  influence,  5. 
Code  of  Omar,  177. 
"Commander    of    the     Faithful" 

title,  162  m. 
Commandments  of  Islam,  209. 
Commutation  of  months  (Nasa),  33. 
"  Companions"  of  the  Prophet,  16, 

165,  180,  181. 


Creed  of  Islam,  154,  155. 
Criminal  laws,  202. 
Cyprus  taken,  182. 

Damascus,  16;  taken  by  Khalid,  167. 

Dirge,  23. 

Ditch  at  Medina,  114. 

Divorce,  ancient,  19  ;  in  Islam,  215. 

Egypt    conquered,     173 ;     revolts 

from  Ali,  188. 
"Eheu  fugaces,"  21. 
Era,    Muhammadan,    3,  App.   B.  ; 

fired  by  Omar,  177. 
Exile  to  Abyssinia,  71  ;  of  Qainu- 

qaa,  97  ;  of  ISTazir,  103. 

Fast  of  Ramadhan,  156. 

Fdtiha:    "Opening"    Chapter    of 

Quran,  197. 
Fatima,  daughter  of  Muhammad, 

All's  Avife,  52,  98,  163. 

Gabriel  calls  Muhammad,  55  ff. ; 

helps    him,     81  ;     brings    down 

Quran,  133. 
Ghassan,  its  history,  31. 

Hafsa,  Omar's  daughter,  97,  133, 
176. 

Halima,  Muhammad's  foster- 
mother,  45,  47. 

Hamza,  "Lion  of  God,"  Muham- 
mad's uncle,  76,  93,  101. 

Hasan,  98  ;  abdicates,  and  is 
poisoned,  190. 

Hawazin  tribe,  attacks  Muhammad, 
defeated  at  Hunain,  129. 

Hell,  in  Quran,  211. 

Hijra,  "Flight"  to  Medina,  3,  81. 

Hira,  29. 

Hubal,  idol,  32  ;  divination  before, 
39;  128. 

Hunain,  victory  over  Hawazin,  130. 

Husain  falls  at  Karbala,  191  ; 
worshipped  by  Shias,  220. 

Ibrahim,  Muhammad's  son  by 
Mary,  133  If. 


INDEX 


237 


Islam,  "Self-surrender,"  Muham- 
mad's religiou,  2^assiin  ;  breaks 
all  ties,  95,  97,  116  ;  political 
despotism,  157. 

Idolatry  denounced,  58,  65,  141, 

Jeeijsalem  taken  by  Omar,  171. 

Jesus  Christ,  73,  76,  85. 

Jews  at  Medina — exiled  or  mass- 
acred, 97,  103,  116. 

Jihad,  "Holy  War,"  commanded, 
91,  157. 

Jinns,  spirits,  18,  34,  46. 

Judgment  day  in  Quran,  205  fF. 

Juwairiya,  103,  108,  110. 

Kaala,  ancient  temple,  2,  34,  124  ; 

rebuilt,  54;  cleansed,  124. 
Karbala,  tragedy  of,  190. 
Khadija,   Muhammad's   first   wife, 

52,  53,  56,  77. 
Khaibar  Jews,  118  fF. 
Khalid,  commander,  100,  115,  125, 

126,  168  ;  the  "Sword  of  God," 

165. 
Kufa  founded,  173  ;    All's  capital, 

187. 

Lane,  Ed.,  quoted,  151,  155,  157, 

201,  213. 
Lyall,  Sir  C.  J.,  Ancient  Arabian 

Poetry,  extracts,  21-24. 

Madain,    Persian    capital,    taken, 

169  ff. 
Maqauqas  of  Egypt,  summoned  to 

Ishim,  121 ;  original  letter,  App.  C. 
Marriage,  laws  of,  214. 
Mecca,    1,    2,    7,    24;    submits   to 

Muhammad,  127. 
Meccans    defeated    at    Badr,    93  ; 

victors  at  Uhud,    100 ;    besiege 

Medina,  114. 
Miracles  disclaimed,  151 ;  imputed 

to  Muhammad,  15,  81,  83. 
"Miracle  Play"  of  Persia,  described, 

219  tr. 

Muawiya,  177,  184,  187,  189, 
191. 


Muhammad,  birth,  3,  40,  44 ; 
epileptic,  47  ;  marries  Khadija, 
52  ;  is  "called"  by  Gabriel,  55  ; 
an  "unlettered"  Prophet,  57; 
his  early  teaching,  72  ;  flees  to 
Medina,  80;  his  "night  journey," 
82  ;  marries  Ayesha,  97  ;  sanc- 
tions assassinations,  96  ;  fights 
at  Badr  and  Uhud,  93,  100  ; 
exiles  or  massacres  Jewish  tribes, 
103,  116  ;  suspects  and  absolves 
Ayesha,  109  ;  captures  Mecca, 
127  ;  leads  Farewell  Pilgrimage, 
141-143  ;  falls  ill  and  dies,  144  ; 
composes  the  Quran,  fixes  Arabic 
style,  195  ;  character  and  habits, 
148  ;  rejects  Christianity,  205. 

Musailima,  "The  Liar,"  144,  165. 

Muslim,  "resigned,"  a  follower  of 
]\Iuhammad,  3,  7  ;  passim. 

"Muslims  before  Islam,"  41. 

Muta,  defeat  of  Zaid,  125. 

Mysticism  in  Islam,  see  Sufis. 

Omar,  second  Khalifa ;  converted, 
77  ;  at  Badr,  93,  and  Uhud,  100  ; 
election,  168  ;  at  Jerusalem,  174  ; 
character,  177  ;  murdered,  178. 

Orphans,  pity  for,  14. 

Paradise,    101  ;    in   Quran,    153, 

209  ff. 
Pilgrimage  incumbent  on  Muslims, 

7  ;  "Farewell,"  141. 
Polygamy,  157,  215. 
Prayer,  five  daily  commanded,  86  ; 

public,  155. 
Predestination,  201. 

QadIsiya,    battle,   decides  fate  of 

Persia,  171. 
Quraish,  dominant  tribe  of  Mecca, 

33,  42,49,  81,  etc. 
Quran,  "miracle,"  57  ;  eternal,  57, 

107  ;   how  composed,  152,  153  ; 

collected,    165  ;   selections  from, 

197-200,  206-214. 
Qusai,  chief  in  Mecca,  refounds  the 

city,  32,  37,  39. 


238 


INDEX 


"Refugees"  from  Mecca,  90. 
"Remission  "  or  cessation  of  revela- 
tions, 57. 

Saad,   Muslim  general,   170,   173, 

182. 
Shias  and  Sunnis,  216. 
Slavery,  135,  215. 
Sufis,  mystics  of  Islam,  221  ;  their 

doctrine,  223. 

Ta,if  rejects  Muhammad,  78  ;  be- 
sieged, 130  ;  submits,  140. 

"Throne  Verse,"  198. 

Treaties,  with  Jews  of  Medina, 
90 ;  with  Meccans,  120  ;  with 
Christian  chiefs,  139. 

Uqaz,  fair  of,  35,  51. 
Uthman,  third  Khalifa,  elected,  179; 
character,  180  ;  murdered,  184. 

Wahhabis,  fanatics,  7,  8  ;  their 
doctrines,  224,  226. 


Wives  of  Muhammad,  special  laws 

for,  113. 
"Women  before  Islfim,  17  ;  in  Islam, 

106,    107,    113,    155,    157;    and 

future  life,  App.  A. 

Yam  AN,  27,  28,  143. 

Yarmuk,    battle,    decides    fate    of 

Syria,  170. 
Yazid,  son  and  successor  of  Mua- 

wiya,  191,  216. 
Year    "of  Ashes,"  177;    "of  the 

Elephant,"  29  ;  "of  the  Flight," 

3,  81  ;  "of  deputations,"  138. 

Zaid,  Muhammad's  freedman,  53  ; 

converted,   61  ;  divorces  Zainab, 

praised  in  Quran,  117;  killed,  125. 
Zaid    (2),    Muhammad's   secretary, 

104  ;  collects  Quran,  166. 
Zaid  (3),  the  Sceptic,  42  ;  his  creed 

and  prayer,  43  ff. 
Zemzem,    fountain    at    Mecca,    2 ; 

redug,  32. 


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to  bring  within  the  reach  of  the  many  a  clear  and  succinct  presentation  of  these 
prophets  in  their  historical  environment.'"— Yxom.  the  Author's  Introduction. 

'*  So  far  as  Mr  Blake's  series  has  gone  it  is  unrivalled." — The 
Sunday  School. 

"Those  who  already  possess  the  earlier  parts  of  the  same  work  will 
at  once  possess  themselves  of  this  new  volume.  Those  who  do  not, 
will  be  glad  to  have  it  recommended  to  their  notice.  The  author's  plan 
has  grown  since  he  first  announced  it,  and  we  are  glad  of  it,  as  the 
treatment  is  more  full  and  thorough.  It  is  enough  now  to  say  that 
there  is  nothing  like  this  little  book  on  Jeremiah," — Church  Bells. 

"  Mr  Blake  has  already  taught  us  how  to  read  Isaiah  and  the  Minor 
Prophets,  and  we  have  found  the  task  much  lightened  in  consequence, 
scarcely  any  more  a  toilsome  task  at  all.  For  the  difficulty  of  the 
Prophets  is  in  their  arrangement,  together  with  the  numerous  allusions, 
local  and  historical,  and  these  are  the  things  Mr  Blake  takes  pains  to 
put  right  for  us.  He  puts  them  right,  so  that  now  we  stand,  as  far  as 
it  is  possible  we  ever  could  stand,  in  the  same  position  as  the  prophet's 
hearers.  No  'Aids  to  the  Study  of  the  Bible'  can  approach  these  in 
real  helpfulness  for  the  ordinary  Bible  reader." — The  Expository  Times. 

"  A  pleasure  to  read,  and  profit  for  the  reading.  .  ,  .  The  arrange- 
ment of  the  historical  sections,  and  the  prophetical  utterances  connected 
therewith,  is  admirable.  All  Bible  students  have  reason  to  be  grateful 
to  the  author  for  this  entertaining  volume ;  its  form  is  inviting,  its 
interest  absorbing." — Church  Times. 

"A  well-conceived  and  carefully  executed  attempt  to  make  these 
writings  speak  for  themselves.  .  .  .  His  book  will  give  a  new  meaning 
to  these  prophecies  to  many  a  reader." — The  Critical  Revieiv. 

Edinburgh  :  T.  &  T.  CLARK,  38  GEORGE  STREET. 
New  York:  CHARLES  SCRIBNER'S  SONS. 


THE  THEOLOGY   OF   MODERN   LITERATURE. 

By  S.  Law  Wilson,  M.A.,  D.D.  Post  8vo,  price  $3.00 
'  The  theology  with  which  Dr.  Law  Wilson  concerns  himself  in  his  brilliant 
book  is  the  theology  of  the  litterateur  and  the  belle-lettrist,  the  theology  of 
modern  polite  literature.  ...  He  rises  superior  to  the  difficulties  of  his  task. 
and  presents  us  with  a  book  which  is  profoundly  interesting,  supremely 
useful,  and  extraordinarily  comprehensive  in  its  scope.' — Independent. 

THE    INCARNATE    SAVIOUR. 

By  W.  Robertson  Nicoll,  M.A.,  LL.D.     A  New  and  Cheaper 

Edition.     Crown  8vo,  price  $1.25. 
The  late  Canon  Liddon:  'It  commands  my  warm  sympathy  and  admira- 
tion.     I  rejoice  in  the  circulation  of  such  a  book,  which  I  trust  will  be  the 
widest  possible. 

THE    RITSCHLIAN    THEOLOGY. 

Critical  and  Constructive  :  An  Exposition  and  an  Estimate.      By 
the  Rev.  A.  E.  Garvie,  M.  A.  (Oxen).     8vo,  price  nett  $3.00. 
'  Mr.  Garvie's  grasp  of  the  subject  is  unsurpassed.  .  .  .  Nothing  could  be 
clearer  or,  indeed,  more  fascinating   in  theological  writing  than  this.' — 
Expository  Times. 

'Eitschlian    literature   is   permanently  enriched   by  this  publication.' — 
British  Weekly. 

'  The  weightiest,  warmest,  and  fairest  work  in  English  on  its  subject.' — 
Dr.  P.  T.  Forsyth  in  the  Speaker. 

THE    SPIRIT   AND   THE    INCARNATION. 

In  the  Light  of  Scripture,  Science,  and  Practical  Need.  By  the 
Rev.  W.  L.  Walker.  Demy  Svo,  price  $3.50. 
In  a  leading  article,  headed  'A  GREAT  BOOK,'  in  the  British  Weekly  of 
18th  January,  Professor  Marcus  DoijS  writes:  'It  may  be  questioned 
whether  in  recent  years  there  has  appeared,  at  home  or  abroad,  any 
theological  work  more  deserving  of  careful  study.  He  who  intelligently 
reads  it  once  will  inevitably  read  it  again  and  again.' 

CHRISTIAN    CHARACTER: 

A  Study  in  New  Testament  Morality.    By  Prof.  T.  B.  Kilpatrick, 

D.D.  Crown  Svo,  $1.00. 
'  The  touch  is  sure,  the  work  solid.  The  author  grips  his  case  at  once,  and 
puts  practical  issue  clearly  and  fairly.  And  all  is  set  in  a  warm  Christian 
atmosphere  and  spiritual  light.  ...  It  is  essentially  a  volume  which  should 
be  in  the  hands  of  all  preachers  and  teachers,  who  will  find  in  it  a  rich  mine.' 
—Puritan.  

Edinburgh  :  T.  &  T.  CLARK,  38  George  Street. 
New  York:   CHARLES   SCRIBNER'S  SONS. 


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